一词多义是一种普遍而重要的语言现象,更是英语词汇的一大特色。英语中纯粹的单义词很少,绝大多数词都是多义词,即一个词项有两个或两个以上的意义(李福印,2006)。那么多义词产生的途径有哪些呢?一词多义现象中,词义拓展的方式有两种:辐射(radiation)与连锁(concatenation);从认知语言学角度来说,隐喻与转喻是多义词词义延伸和拓展的途径。对以上问题的研究,不仅会加深我们对多义词的理解,而且它对英语学习者在学习英语词汇时会产生一些重要的启示。
(一)多义词产生的原因。一词多义(polysemy)即一个词具有多种意义,而且意义之间密切相关,如英语中mouth of ariver 与mouth of an animal。前者是后者意义的隐喻性延伸,两个意义之间有密切的关系,因此month属于多义词的范畴。多义词现象是语言经济性和灵活性的一种体现。它是语言的一种优点,而非缺点。这是因为,语言词语在获得新的意义的同时,并不一定要以失去其原有的意义作为代价。在不增加词汇数量的情况下,可表达的意义范围扩大了,这是语言经济性和创造力的表现(束定芳,2000)。产生多义词的原因有多种。不同学者对此有许多不同的论述。本文作者归纳并认真分析后,认为在词义变化过程中产生一词多义最主要的原因有以下几点:
1.使用范围的转移(shift in application)。这是产生一词多义最主要的原因。如handsome原来一般只用于形容男性的相貌,义为“英俊的,帅的”。如果用来形容女性,如a handsomewoman,其意义就变成了“健美而端庄的,标致的”。如果用于修饰金钱,如ahandsome sum ofmoney,意义则是“可观的,相当多的”。一些词在不同场合下使用时意义也各不相同,以形容词sharp 和blunt为例(段满福,2004)。sharp(刀具)尖利的→(言语)苛刻的→(行动)直截了当的→(感觉)剧烈的→(智力)敏捷的;blunt(刀具)钝的→(言语)直率的→(行动)笨拙的→(感觉)迟钝的→(智力)愚笨的。由此可见,一个词由于使用范围的转移,可用于不同的语义场,具有不同的意义。
2.不同社会领域中词具有特殊专业意义(specialization in asocialmilieu)。属于社会原因。如律师们所说的action 往往是legalaction,而士兵们所说的action可能就是military action 了;又如生意人谈论company 一词时多指公司,而船长说company时意义多为全体船员。
3.由于修辞用法而产生多义。因篇幅所限,我们只选择最主要的两种修辞方法,即隐喻(metaphor)和转喻(metonymy)来讨论。在多义词形成的途径问题中,我们还会从认知角度来具体分析这一点。在暗喻修辞里,本体和喻体之间存在相似之处,所以在eyeof aneedle(针眼),teeth of a tomb(梳齿),neck of a bottle(瓶颈),bridgeof apair of glasses(眼镜架),lip of a cup(杯口)中,eye,teeth,neck,bridge 和lip都是比喻用法,它们和本体之间外形相似。从而这些词具有了多种意义。再来看转喻。转喻也称为借代,就是用一个密切相关的事物来指另一个事物,例如:Shesets a good table,其中table 在此处的意思是supply of food,用“桌子”来指代“食物”。在He isnice,but he hasn’t got muchbrain(他人很好,却不太聪明)中,用“头脑”来指代“智力”。4.外来词的影响(foreigninfluence)。如汉语中的“的”由于英语中的taxi 音译的影响,其“出租车”的义项似乎也得到了确定。
(二)多义词各意义的形成途径
1.辐射式与连锁联结。一个词最初往往只有一个意义,它的其他意义是如何出现的呢?词义的发展有两个重要的过程,即辐射式和连锁联结。首先我们要了解什么是原始意义和派生意义。一个词最初具有的意义,我们习惯称为原始意义(primarymeaning),即本意,是该词使用最频繁的意义。在此基础上逐渐形成了许多其它的意义,称为派生意义(derivationalmeaning),或叫做引申义。所谓辐射式,从语义角度,用一形象的比喻来说,就是一个词的多个派生意义以原始意义为中心,如射线一般向四周辐射开来。以单词power为例,在词典COD(The Concise Oxford Dictionary)中,它有多个义项,如:
(1)ability to do or act…;particular faculty of body ormind…;
(2)vigor,energy;
(3)active property...;
(5)authorization,delegated authority...;
(6)influential person,body,or thing...;……
Power 的原始意义“ability to do oract”位于中心,其他派生意义像射线一样辐射出来,它们互不干涉,但是原始意义始终贯穿于各个派生意义之中。
下面我们再来看连锁联结。连锁联结,顾名思义,就是单词后来具有的每个意义都仅仅只和它的前一个意义相关联,从前一个意义派生出来,就像锁链上的环一样,一环紧扣一环。经过多次派生而产生的意义已经游离于原始意义,与其几乎没有什么联系了。例如,candidate(候选人)来自拉丁语candidatus(white-robed,穿白衣的),原义指“穿白衣的人”(aperson dressed in white),后用来指“穿白衣的谋求官职者”(white-robed seeker foroffice)。原来,在古罗马,谋求官职的人总是穿着白袍子跟老百姓见面,candidate就有了此义。现在“穿着白衣的人”这个原始意义已经废弃了,candidate只用来表示“谋职者,参加考试的人”。
事实上,这两种词义演变的途径或过程不是泾渭分明的,通常是交叉进行的。
2.隐喻与转喻。我们亦可从另一个方面来看多义词产生的方式。
从认知角度来分析一词多义现象,可知隐喻和转喻在其中扮演着重要的角色。许多学者对此都曾有论述。“语言深深扎根于认知结构中,隐喻就是一种重要的认知模式,是新语义产生的根源”。(赵艳芳,2001)“一词多义之间必然存在某种联系。这种联系往往通过隐喻建立起来”。(陈忠,2005)也正如Leech所认为的那样,词义延伸主要是通过隐喻或转喻的认知思维方式来实现的(Leech,2000)。隐喻的本体和喻体属于两个不同的范畴,是一个域向另一个域的映射,本体和喻体之间具有相似性的关系。转喻的投射一般是双向的,主要模式有“整体与部分”,“部分与整体”,“地名与机构”,“原因与结果”和“人名与作品”等。(李瑛,文旭,2006)我们以head一词为例,在CALD(Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary)辞典给head列出的众多名词义项中,我们只选择3 个来分析:
(1)the part of the body above the neck that contains theeyes,nose,month and the brain.(头,头部)
(2)a person or animal when considered as aunit.(表示人或动物的数量单位:头,只)
(3)the larger end of a nail,hammer,etc.(钉子或锤子的大的一头)
义项(1)自然称为head的原始义项。义项(2)便带有转喻的认知特征,头是人体最重要的部位,把头作为人或动物的数量计算单位,点头的数量就表示点人或动物的数量,这种以部分带整体就是转喻的思维模式。再看义项(3),义项(3)与本意具有相似性的特征,属于隐喻性的思维模式,因为其中把人的头映射到了实体钉子和锤子上,这是两种不同域之间的映射。由此可见,词义的延伸主要依赖于转喻的邻近性思维特征和隐喻的相似性思维特征。
二、一词多义现象对英语词汇学习的启示
以上对一词多义现象的产生原因,形成途径等问题的研究,不仅加深了我们对多义词的理解与认识,更重要并且具有实践意义的是,我们在学习英语词汇的过程里,可以从中得到一些启示。通过探索适当的词汇学习方法,来提高效率。
首先,注意阶段性,及时总结。在学习英语词汇的过程中,要注意到阶段性。不同的阶段有不同的侧重点。在语言学习初级阶段,我们会遇到并记住那些意义明确具体的词汇,但随着语言能力的提高,会发现这些词在不同的语境中有不同的含义。这时就应当积极主动的对这些多义词的不同意义做一详细总结,研究各义项之间的关联或形成途径,从而更多更准确的掌握不同义项。
第二,把握中心词义,即原始意义。由于多义词不同义项之间存在着基本意义和引申意义的联系,因此如果能围绕原始意义,根据联想来记忆词汇,往往会事半功倍。Nation(2000)指出,多义词认知过程的有效策略是用一个能贯穿于所有意义的词义来定义目标词,这样可以减少所需认知的词汇量。换句话说,抓住这一贯穿始终的原始词义,就较容易记住其它相关的义项。
第三,要特别注意多义词的使用语境。在记忆多义词时,不应该仅仅机械地去背诵词典中的定义或概念,这样当多义词出现在不同文章里时,往往还是难以分辨或判断它的含义。学习者应该依赖具体的语境确定多义词的意义(段建敏,2006)。以red一词为例。其中心意义为“红色”,如a girl in red“红衣少女”。但在下列不同搭配,不同语境中,其意义各异。be in thered 表示“亏损,赔本”;to see red 表示“发火,愤怒”;而red-handed则指“在当场,在犯罪现场”。可见语境对掌握多义词的重要性。
最后,还应当注意多义词与同形异义词的区别。分清两者词义的来源,会减少歧义的产生,从而有助于词汇的记忆。
常考的一词多义
1. go through:(1)经历;(2)仔细检查,审查;
(7)通过(法律,提案);(8)成交(生意);
例: We’ll have to go through a severetest.
The sale of the store went through quickly.这家店铺的转卖迅速成交。
Their business arrangements went through. 他们的营业计划被批准了。This roadgoes through the forest.
The country has gone through too many wars. 这个国家经历了太多的战争。
The new law has gone through Congress.
He went through all the money his father gave me.他把父亲给的钱全都花光了。
2. put away:(1)监察;
(7) 吃完;喝完; (8)把…送进精神病院;
例:Put away thesedishes.
She's got a few thousand pounds put away for her retirement.她已存了几千镑以备退休之用.
He must have put away half a bottle of whisky last night.昨晚他大概喝了半瓶威士忌酒.
I don't know how he manages to put it all away!我真不知道他怎麽吃得这样多!
He was put away for ten years for armed robbery.他因持械抢劫而关押了十年.
She went a bit odd and had to be put away. 她有点不正常, 只好送进了疯人院.
3. come up: (1)(人)走近;
(6)上楼;
例:The flowers are just beginning to come up.
The seeds I sowed last week haven't come up yet.
I like to get up early and watch the sun comeup.
He came up to the policeman and asked the way.
I could hear footsteps coming up behind me.
I'm afraid something urgent has come up; I won't be able to seeyou tonight. 很抱歉,有点儿急事,今晚不能见你了。
The subject came up in conversation.这个话题在谈话中提到了。My number came upand I won £ 100. 我中奖了,赢了100英镑。
The question never came up in discussion.
4. out of:(1)从---的内部出来;(2)在----范围之外; (3)从(某个数)之中;(4)由---做成;
例:He walked out of the house.
5. get on:(1)相处融洽;
(6)骑上(马等),登上(公共汽车、火车等)(6)(时间)晚了,(年岁)老了(7)继续(干某事)
例:Where did you geton?
6. set up:(1)竖起; (2)生起; (3)建造;(4)配置; (5)提出;提议; (6)生产;(7)树立,推崇;(8)创(新记录)
例:A statue was set up in memory of the greatinventor.
7. workout:(1)设计,制定,安排;
例:We should work out a plan for the new term.
8. cut off: (1)隔离;
例:I was cut off in the middle of the telephonecall.
9. cut down:(1)减少,减低;
例:You must cut down on sugar to lose weight.
10.come to life:(1)苏醒过来
例:
11. closeto:(1)(在空间上/时间上)接近;
例:Close to a hundred experiments have beenmade.
12. devote to:(1)把----用于;
例:He devoted his life to the study ofscience.
He determined to devote himself entirely to the cause ofrevolution. 他决心把自己的一生全部献给革命事业。
13. get rid of:(1)摆脱;免除;
例:You should get rid of such sillyideas.
14. makeup:(1)编造(故事,谎言);
例: By hard work they made up the lost time.他们以勤劳地工作弥补了失去的时间。
That’s not true, you just made that up.那不是真的,是你编造出来的。
15.put forward:(1)提出(建议,理论,意见,计划)
例:He put forward a newplan.
16.keep to:
例:
17.point to:
例:Everything points to a bright future for usall.
Their comments point to some notable omissions in thedictionary. 他们的评论指出该词典中几处明显的遗漏。
18.take up:
例:He took up the study of English at the age offive.
19.go alongwith:(1)陪---去,与---同去;
例:Would you like me to go along with you?你愿意我与你同去吗?
20.get away with: (1)做了某事而不受惩罚
例:The dog got away with the meat in hismouth.
21.break up:(1)婚姻/组织解散;
例:The party broke up atmidnight.
22.throw away:
例:We can’t throw away our revolutionarytradition.
24.refer to:
例: Don’t refer to this matter again.
25.putdown:(1)写下来;
例:Put down your addresshere.把你的地址写在这儿。
26.more than:(1)+数字:超过;
(4)not~+数字:至多,不超过
(6)no~:与---一样不-----,并不比------
(7)~+主语+can+谓语:表示否定意义,-----不能/非-----所能。主语情态动词只能用can。
例:That is more than I can tell you,
What she said is more than he can understand.
The beauty of the city is more than I can describe.这座城市的美丽远非我能描述的。
27.put on:(1)穿上;
例:Put on your raincoat.
A film will be put on tonight in the cinema. 一部影片将于今晚在电影院上演。
The worker on the construction site should put on their safetyhelmets before starting to work.
建筑工地上的工人在开始工作前都必须戴上安全帽.
28. put off:(1)推迟;延期;
例:Don’t put off writing to him.
29. put out:(1)熄灭;
例:Put out the candle when you go tobed.
The factory put out a lot of new products lastyear.
30.putup:(1)举起;架起;安装;
例:They put up the Chinese flag.
These apartment houses were put up in 1982. 这些住宅楼是1982年建起的。
They put up a map of China on thewall.
31.getalong:(1)进行;
例:How are you getting along with yourstudy?
He managed to get along without much money.
32.getover:(1)克服,摆脱;
例:How shall we get over this difficulty?
I can’t get over hisrudeness.
32. setdown:(1)放下;卸下;
例:He set down the books on the table and wentaway.
33. pickup:(1)让人搭载;
例:Phil, could you pick me up after work? Phil, 你下班后能来接我吗?
Nicholas, please pick up after yourself and put things backwhere you found them. Nicholas, 请把用过的东西收好, 并把它们放回原位。
She picked up a stone and threw it at thewindow.她捡起一块石头朝窗户扔去。
She picked herself up and started running again.她跌倒后爬起来,又开始跑了起来。
Where did you pick up your English?
Pick me up at the hotel.
We picked up radio signals for help form the damagedplane.
34. blow up:(1)使---充气;
例:I have to get my front tyre blown up. 我得给前胎打气了。The soldiersblew up the bridge with dynamite.
35. breakdown:(1)(机器,车辆等)坏了;
例:The car broke down half way and we had to walkthere.
All our plans broke down.
Peter broke down and cried when his mother died. 彼特的母亲去世十时,他不禁失声痛哭.
They broke the door down. 他们把门打碎了。
36. break in:(1)非法闯入;
例:He broke in and stole mymoney.
The secretary broke in to say that a telegram hadarrived.
37. bringback:(1)使回想起;
例:I know it happened, but I can’t bring it back to my mind.我知道有这件码事儿,可是我想不起来了。
All library books must be brought back before June20.
The few hours I had spent in the library had brought back my oldpassion for reading.
在图书馆度过的短短的几个小时又使我恢复了原有的读书的热枕。
38. set out:(1)动身,出发;
例:Half an hour later we set out to again ourjourney.
They set out to perform the operation.他们开始做手术。
39. settledown:(1)坐下来;
例:He settled down at his desk to work out the exactfigures.
They hoped to settle down in this country.
40. dress up:(1)穿上盛装;
例:
41.run out of:(1)从---跑出来; (2)用完
例:He is always running out of money beforepayday.
He just ran out of hishome.
42.come off: (1)脱离;
例:
She came off rather badly in thedebate.
43.lead to: (1)导致;
例: The bank has offered a reward for any information leading tothe arrest of the men. 银行悬赏确保,以便将这些人绳之以法.
44.feel like:(1)喜欢,想要(做);
例: I felt like another glass ofwine.
45.run out:
例:Our supplies finally ranout.
46.come about: (1)出现,发生;
例: Hoe did this dangerous state of affairs comeabout?
47.go up:
例: Prices have gone up again.
58.go over:(1) 视察;查看;
例: We went over the building.
59.find out:(1)查明;如通过观察或询问查明(某事);
例: I found out the phone number by looking it up. If you’re notsure, find out.通过查找我查到了电话号码。如果你不肯定,查一查。
60.turn up: (1)开大,调高;增加速度/音量/强度/流量
例: turn up the public-address system
61.clean up: (1)彻底清理;整理;
例: It is your turn to clean the bedroomup.
62.throw away : (1)扔掉;抛弃;
例: Throw the old magazinesaway.
63.up to: (1)[数目]到---之多;
例: up to 100men
64.break down: (1)使---崩溃,毁坏;
例:We must break down the oldcustoms.我们必须破除那些旧风俗。
Chemicals in the body break down our food into useful substance.体内的化学物质把失去转化成有用的成分。
65. let out:(1)放出,释放;
例:They were let out of prison last week.
66.carry out: (1) 实行,运作;
例:The government carried out a new policy.
67.hold on:(1)[打电话时]等着,别挂断;
例:Hold on a minute----I will just get a pen.
68. come back:(1)回来;
例: When are you coming back?
69. come out: (1)出现;
(5)(颜色﹑污点等)被除去;
例: The stars came out as soon as it was dark.天一黑星星就出来了。
The news came out that the President was verysick.
The picture I took didn’t come out.
I washed this shirt twice and the ink sill didn’t comeout.
Workers in all the factories are coming out in support of thedismissed men. 所有工厂里的工人都举行罢工支持被开除的工人。
70.go on:(1)发生; (2)继续;(3)(时间)流逝;(4)运转;开始(起作用);(5)不断抱怨,责骂;
例: What’s going on here?这里发生了什么事?
71. go out: (1)外出; (2)同异性交往;(3)出国远行;
例: We go out three times a week.我们一个星期外出三次。
72. dig out:
例: They dug the potatoes out of the ground.他们从地下挖出番薯.
73. come into:
例: come into being/existence 形成,产生,出现
74.take off: (1)脱掉,卸妆;
例: I forgot to take off my make-up last night.
75.take in:(1)吸引,吸收;(2)收留,留宿; (3)理解,了解;(4)欺骗;
例: The newly built museum takes in a lot of visitors everyday.
76.playoff:(1)偿清债务,结帐;(2)报复;
例: It’s a good feeling to pay off the house after all theseyears.
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that的用法大全 5.用在强调句型“It is/was …that”结构中,替代被强调部分,没有意义,但不能省去that. 6.在名词从句中,不能省略that的情况: ⑴主语/表语/同位语从句中用的that不能省略。否则,一个句子中会出现两个谓语。 例:That they are good at English is known to us all. ⑵当that从句和主句谓语动词之间有插入语或者从句主语有插入语,that不能省略。 例:He judged that, because he was a child, he did notunderstand it. ⑶当that从句和另一个名词性从句并列作宾语时,that不能省略。 例:Everyone knew what happened and that she wasworried. ⑷当that作介词宾语时,that不能省略。例:Thereason lies in that she works harder than the others do. (5)当that后紧跟从句的状语时; 例:I promised that if anyone came to see me, I would make himking over the earth. (6)that引导的宾语从句中含有主语从句时; 例:We must realize that what we know and what we learn mayalso limit our thinking. (7)that引导两个并列从句时,第二个that不能省. 例:Mr. Smith told the worker (that) John had worked very hardand that he wanted him to stay. (8)从句用it形式代替时. 例:He wanted to make it known to all that he had been toJapan. |
1.表示"但是;然而;可是"。如:She isyoung but very experienced.她虽然年轻但经验丰富。 2.用于表示歉意的话语后,表示有礼貌地拒绝或不赞成。 如:I'm sorry, but I disagree withyou.对不起,我不同意你的意见。 3.引导从句,与前面的否定词对应,作"无……而不……"解。如:Itnever rains but it pours.不雨则已,一雨倾盆。 二、but用作介词 1.与no, nobody, nothing, none,who等词连用,作"除……之外"解,用来排除同类,从整体中除去一部分。 如:Nobody knew her but me.除我以外,没有人认识她。 2.but前若有do的某种形式(did,does)时,but后的动词不定式就省略to;若无则带to。 can't not but do sth. 不得不做某事。 can’t help but dosth. 忍不住做某事 如: We had no choice but towait.除了等待我们别无选择。 3.与last, next及one,two等连用,作"倒数第二、第三"等解。 如:Jack was the last but one toarrive.杰克是倒数第二个到达的。 4.but作介词时,后接从句时that可省略。 如:Nothing would content him but (that )I mustcome. 只要我去才能让他满意。 三、but用作副词 1.相当于only,意为"不过;只",后面跟名词或动词。 2.用在can后意为"只能";用在cannot后意为"不得不"。 如:I can but hurry back.我只能赶紧回来。 I cannot but admirehis bravery.我不得不钦佩他的勇气。 3.用在too...to...结构前表肯定意义。 如:I'm but too glad to go there withyou.我非常高兴和你一起去那里。 四、but用作关系代词 无不,(=who…not,that…not),多用在否定结构中,构成的句子是双重否定句。 如:There is no one of us but wishes to helpyou.我们没有一个人不愿意帮助你。 五、but的习惯用语 1.butfor=without意为"要不是;如果没有",相当于虚拟条件句。 如:But for your help, we couldn't have carried out theplan.如果没有你的帮助,我们不可能实现那个计划。 2.but that=exceptthat意为"若非;要不是",引导虚拟句。 如:He would have helped me but that he was short of money atthat time.要不是他那时候没钱,他会帮助我的。 3.but then=on the otherhand意为"不过;在另一方面"。 如:London is a noisy place, but then it's also a place whereyou get the bestentertainment.伦敦是个闹市,不过它也是能够给你最好娱乐的地方。 4.nothing but=only意为"只;不过是"。如:Wecould see nothing but water.我们只看见一大片水。 5.not...but...意为"不是……而是……"。连接两个并列成分,后面可跟名词、形容词、副词、短语、从句等。 如: The letter is addressed not to me but toyou.这封信不是写给我的而是写给你的。 6.not only...but also...意为"不但……而且……",连接两个并列成分。 如:Not only you but also she has to attend themeeting.不但你而且她也必须参加这次会议。 He not only teaches us English but also does otherthings.他不但教我们英语而且还干别的事情。 7.not that...butthat...意为"不是……而是……"。如: Not that the car is out of order, but that I've not learnedto drive it.不是汽车出了故障,而是我还没学会开车。 8.can't help butdo...意为"不能不……;忍不住……"。如:I can't help butcry.我忍不住哭了。 9.can not but do sth. 不得不做某事。如:Icould not butlaugh. 我忍不住笑。 |
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