语法这部分主要涉及名词代词、形容词和副词、不定式、动名词、分词、反意疑问句、从句、时态和语态、前后呼应、倒装等内容。
名词与代词
名词可分为专有名词和普通名词两类。 而普通名词又可分为个体名词、集体名词、物质名词和抽象名词。 其中，个体名词和集体名词为可数名词，而物质名词和抽象名词为不可数名词。 名词的复数构成通常是在其后加 -s ，但以 -s ， -x ， -ch ， -sh 和大部分以 o 结尾的名词后加 -es; 以 “ 辅音字母 +y” 结尾的名词把 “y” 变成 “i” ，再加 -es 。 有些名词的复数构成是不规则的，有其特殊形式。 有些名词在不同的情况下，属不同的名词词类，因此有时为可数，有时则为不可数。 名词的格可分为主格 ( 作主语 ) ，宾格 ( 作宾语 ) 和所有格 ( 表示所有关系 ) 。
代词可分为人称代词，物主代词，反身代词，相互代词，不定代词，指示代词，关系代词，连接代词和疑问代词等九类。
1. 名词的用法
可数名词除非前面有冠词或表示单数的限定词，否则要用其复数形式。例如 :
lf a boy disobeys the order, he will be punished severely.
The teacher firstly divided his students into four groups.
These courses are especially designed for senior students.
有些名词的复数构成是不规则的，如 :child-children ， foot-feet ， goose-geese ， mouse-mice ， man-men ， ox-oxen ， tooth-teeth ， woman-women 等。例如 :
Every fall geese fly over the house.
The dentist told him that several teeth of his need to be filled.
Mrs Smith has three children ， and Tonny is the youngest one.
I think we've got mice in the kitchen.
有些名词的单复数形式是一样的 , 如 :Chinese ， Japanese, Spanish( 西班牙 ) ， Lebanese( 黎巴嫩 ) ， Portuguese( 葡萄牙 ) ， Swiss( 瑞士 ) ， sheep ， deer ， swine( 猪 ) ， fish ， carp( 鲤鱼 ) ， salmon( 鲑 ) ， means ， series ， species ， aircraft ， spacecraft 等。例如 :
The best fish are near the bottom.
When they got to the New World, Spanish constructed their houses with Moorish architectural features.
I saw a white sheep running down the road.
Judging by his language ， he must be a Japanese.
在表示一类事物时，介词 of 后的名词要用复数形式。例如，
Beethoven is one of the greatest musicians in the world.
The Animal Art Festival is being held at Shanghai Zoo ， which is one of the most welcome festivals in the city.
She is one of the three martyrs who were killed in NATO 's bombing on the Chinese Embassy in Yugoslavia.
大多数集体名词可作单数，也可作复数，如： army ， audience ， class ， committee ， crew ( 全体船员，乘务员 ) ， crowd ， faculty ， family ， government ， group ， orchestra ， public ， team ， union 等。但有些虽然是单数形式，却用作复数，如 :cattle( 牲畜 ) ， mankind( 人类 ) ， militia( 民兵 ) ， people ， police ， poultry( 家畜 ) ， staff( 全体职员 ) 等。例如 :
The president said the Chinese Government is paying close attention to developments in this matter ， and continues to reserve the right to take further action.
The cattle were grazing on the meadow near the farm.
The audience were amused by his humorous stories.
My family is far away from the school.
有些名词只有复数形式，而且也只用作复数，如 :clothes ， glasses, spectacles ， pants ， arms( 武器 ) ， belongings( 所有物 ) ， customs( 海关 ) ， goods( 货物 ) ， suburbs( 郊区 ) ， papers( 文件 ) 等 ; 而有些名词形式为复数，却用作单数，如 :electronics( 电子学 ) ， mathematics( 数学 ) ， optics( 光学 ) ， politics ， statistics( 统计学 ) 等。例如 :
The shorts he wears are made of leather.
Linguistics is a difficult subject to study.
He used to study electronics which isn't his favorite subject.
I love to live in the suburbs that are conclusive.
有些名词一般情况下以单数形式出现，表示总体。但如果表示若干、多次或几种时，则要用其复数。这类词有 :hair ， fruit ， pollution ， rain ， difficulty ， success ， wind ， failure 等。例如 :
The barber had been cutting human hair for two years before he came to Los Angeles.
Mother bought oranges ， bananas and other fruits.
These caves collapse easily in heavy rains and great winds.
He's having financial difficulties.
有些名词一般只有单数形式，它们通常是表示物质和抽象概念的不可数名词，像 :advice ， baggage ， bread ， corn ， clothing ， equipment ， education ， fun ， furniture ， fruit ， garbage ， grass ， happiness ， homework ， housework ， humanity ， information ， knowledge ， landscape ， laughter ， machinery ， mankind ， merchandise ， money ， music ， nonsense ， nature ， population ， progress ， scenery ， smoke ， sweat ， strength ， traffic ， thunder ， ink ， jewellery ， damage ， mail ， work ， soap ， sugar ， gold ， chalk ， cloth ， anger ， applause ， cake ， chocolate ， poverty 等。例如 :
I must seek the advice of a specialist in the matter of the transfer of property rights.
Headache is the most common disease of human.
I really get a lot of fun from reading in leisure time.
The population of Shanghai is very big.
有些名词单复数的含义不同，使用时要根据上下文的意思进行选择。这类词包括 :communication( 通讯 )-communications( 通讯系统，通讯工具 ) ， cloth( 布 )-clothes( 衣服 ) ， content( 内容 )-contents( 目录 ) ， convenience( 便利 )-conveniences( 便利设备 ) ， humanity( 人类 )-humanities( 人文科学 ) ， necessity( 需要 )-necessities( 必需品 ) ， wood( 木材 )-woods( 树林 ) ， pain( 疼痛 )-pains( 辛劳 ) ， ruin( 毁灭 )-ruins( 废墟，遗迹 ) ， sand( 沙子 )-sands( 沙滩 ) ， work( 工作 )-works( 工厂，著作 ) 等。例如 : “Hometown” is one of Lu Xun's most famous works.
The insurance company paid $121 ， 700 in damages for the accident.
My child enjoys pIaying on the sands.
No pains ， no gains.
有些名词一般只有复数形式。如 :fundamentals( 基本原则 ) ， goods( 货物 ) ， means( 方法 ) ， shorts( 短裤 ) ， sweets( 欢乐 ) ， valuables( 贵重物品 ) 等。
The fundamentals are made to guarantee the social stability.
Don't take any valuables there for the sake of safety.
The goods we purchased from him aren't expensive.
I think our problem can solved by means of negotiation.
名词做定语时，不能用作复数。例如 :
Please check your examination paper carefully after finishing it.
The China's Central Television station supplies weather report everyday.
You'd better infom my family members before leaving for Beijing.
The United States and Germany are two member states of NATO .
复合名词的复数只把其中所包含的主体名词变成复数。如 :looker(s)-on ， runner(s)-up ，
son(s)-in-law ， editor(s)-in-chief ， passer(s)-by ， grand-child(ren) ， armyman(armymen) ，
room-number(s) ， shoe lace(s) ， dinner plate(s) ， blood type(s) 等。如果没有主体名词，就在最后一个词上加复数词尾。如 :go-between(s) ， drawback(s) 等。注意以 man ， woman 构成的复合名词，全部变成复数。如 :man-servant---men-servants ， woman-soldier---women-soldiers 。例如 :
Would you bring me some dinner plates?
We had a wonderful talk with some women-soldiers.
Don't regard yourselves as passers-by under such circumstances.
We are of different blood types.
名词的所有格一般在词尾加 's ，已有复数词尾 -s 的，只加 ' 。例如 :
We must work hard to fulfil the country's plans.
The school is within a stone's throw .
Nearby are her relative' houses.
Could you tell me the Smith's address?
名词所有格有时还可以和 of 构成短语，有以下两种情况 :
1) 它所修饰的词前面有一个表示数量的词，如 :a ， two ， several ， some ， any ， no ， few 等。
2) 它所修饰的词前面有一个指示代词，便句子表示某种情绪。例如 :
Several students of Lao Yang's acted in the play.
We saw a play of Guo Moro's
At birth ， the head of a baby is extremely large in relation to the rest of the body.
I have some records of Na Ying's. 以上是名词的用法。
2. 代词的用法
1) 人称代词有主格人称代词，在句中充当主语 :I ， you ， he ， she ， it ， we ， you ， they ，和宾格人称代词，在句中充当宾语 :me ， you ， him ， her ， it ， us ， you ， them 。例如 :
We haven't seen each other for a long time since he went abroad.
Let you and me have an appointment for the next weekend.
Have you got any idea about this issue?
Tell us whatever you've heard.
2) 物主代词可在句中作定语，有指人的 :my ， our ， your ， his ， her 和 their; 有指物的 :its ， his 或 her( 指国家或轮船 ) 。名词性物主代词作表语、主语、宾语，与 of 连用可作定语 :yours ， ours ， theirs ， mine ， her ， his ， its 。例如 :
Tonny is an old friend of mine.
My dormitory is next to yours, and Mary's is on the third floor.
Titanic sank with her several thousand passengers.
Next time it's on my treat.
3) 反身代词亦称自身代词，可作宾语、表语，作主语或宾语的同位语，还与某些动词连用，与介词连用构成成语。有 :myself ， yourself ， himself ， herself ， itself ， ourselves ， yourselves ， themselves 。例如 :
These Children are too young to take care of themselves.
Don't worry ， he will be himself again soon.
Although Uncle George is a bad-tempered man, I think he is a kind man in himself.
You should be responsible for yourself.
4) 相互代词表示相互关系，有 :each other( 两者之间 ) 和 one another( 多者之间 ) 。例如 :
I met Miss Scott this morning ， and We greeted each other.
We should learn from One another and make progress together.
5) 指示代词在句中充当主语、宾语和定语，有 :this ， that ， these ， those 。 Such 也是指示代词，可作定语、主语和表语，修饰可数名词时要与 a 连用。例如 :
Nowadays TV programs are much more colorful than those of the past.
The money spent on entertainment ， according to some authorities ， has exceeded that spent on public health.
I want to know this: are you talking about the accident I enountered yesterday?
His future is closely bound with that of the company.
You shouldn't trust on such a person who never keeps his promise.
6) 疑问代词有 who ， whom ， whose ， what ， which 。 who 可作主语和表语， whom 作宾语， whose ， what ， which 可作主语、表语、宾语和定语，其中作主语时，要看所代表的人或物是单数还是复数，如果不清楚，则动词一般用单数。
Who will see to this matter?
Whom have you chosen to be responsible for the work?
It is hard to decide whose is better.
What's on your schedule?
Which university did he enter at last?
7) 关系代词有 who ， whom ， whose ， that ， which 。 which 代表事物， that 代表人或物；在非限制性定语从句中，不能用 that ，而用 who(m ) 代表人，用 which 代表物，或代表主句所说的全部内容。在带有 all ， something ， nothing ， anything ， much 等的句子中不能用 which ，而用 that 。例如 :
Our football team was defeated again ， which shows our players need much more effort.
The factory now has over l,000 workers ， half of whom are women.
He promised to tell us all that he knew .
Whose turn to make presentation is beyond me.
8 连接代词有 :what ， who ， whom ， whose ， which ，用来连接主语从句、宾语从句和表语从句。 Whoever ， whomever ， whichever ， whatever 为复合代词。例如 :
I didn't know what to do at that very moment.
The government sells public houses to whoever provides enough amount of money.
Whomever I worry about is none of your business.
Take whichever you like ， please.
形容词与副词
形容词与副词在语法结构上都有比较级和最高级，它们的构成方法基本上一样，都与音节多少有关，有些形容词相副词有特殊的比较级和最高级形式。二者基本分为同级比较、比较级和最高级三种形式。
1. 形容词与副词的用法
l 形容词中有词形相近的，应注意区别。如 :
considerate( 周到的，体贴的 )--considerable( 应考虑的 ) 例如 :
We did enjoy our staying in Beijing ， and Mrs. Yan is really considerate Professor. It's a considerable success for him. eminent( 闻名的 )--imminent( 紧迫的 ) ， gracious( 亲切的 )--graceful( 优雅的 ) ，live( 有生命的 )--aIive( 活的 ) ， industrious( 勤劳的 )--industriaI( 工业的 ) ， like( 同样的 )--alike( 同样的，仅作表语 ) ， opposite( 相对的 )--opposing( 反对的 ) ， perspective( 透视的 )--respective( 各自的 ) ， sensitive( 伤感的 )--sensible( 明显的 ) ， etc 。
2) 形容词中有的词义相近的，也要注意。如
elemental( 初步的 )--fundamental( 基本的 ),eligible( 合格的 )--capable( 能干的 ) ， flexible( 灵活的 )--changeable( 可改变的 ) ， initial( 最初的 )--preliminary( 初步的，预备的 ) ， slack( 松弛的 )--lazy( 懒惰的 ) ， vaIueless( 无价值的 )--priceless( 无价的 ) ， vivid( 生动的 )--living( 活的 ) ， etc 。
例如 :
Henry's speech was so vivid that his audience applauded again and again.
It is easier adapt to new situation if one has a flexible attitude. We have finished the preliminary exam .
Your suggestion is priceless ， and I will consider it carefully.
3) 有些词尾为 -ly 的并非副词，而是形容词 , 如 :lovely ， likey ， deadly ， earthly( 现世的 ) ， leisudy( 空闲的 ) ， weekly ， yearly ， manly( 丈夫气概的 ) ， brotherly ， friendly 等。例如 :
What a lovely girl! Jenny is always ready to help others.
China Daily is of course a daily newspaper but not a weekly one. He is a very friendly young man. As he didn't have any experience ， he was likely to have problems.
以下情况形容词常用于 后置 :1) 形容词短语，即形容词十副词，介词短语或不定式。 2) 一些表语性形容词要后置，如 :present ， available ， involved ， concerned ， etc 。 3) 形容词修饰不定代词 something ， anything ， everything 时要后置。例如 :
There was something nice about my feeling that she knew all.
I came across another question hard to answer then .
I wondered if there was a room available.
副词的位置 为 : 修饰哪个词就放在哪个词前面 ; 放在系动词和助动词之后，行为动词和分词之前。例如 I had a only five-dollar bill with me when I boarded the townward train.
The old law was instituted to protect the long neglected rights of children.
I can hardly believe that he is the murderer.
Although he has advantages ， it is still too early to say that he is sure to win.
2. 比较级与最高级的基本形式和用法
形容词的比较级和最高级的构成为 : 单音节词一般在词尾加 -er 和 -est 。 如果以 -e 结尾，仅加 -r 和 -st; 如末尾仅有一个辅音字母，须双写词尾再加 -er 和 -est; 如果以 y 结尾的，把 y 变 i ，加 -er ， -est; 多音节单词和双音节词 ( 其中包括由分词和分词演变而来的形容词，如 :known ， worn ， wounded ， shocking ， striking ， interesting ， e.ct. 则在其前加 more 和 most; 有些形容词的比较级和最高级是不规则的，如 :good(well)-better-best ， bad(ill)-worse-worst ， many(much)-more-most ， little-less-least ， far-farther(further)-farthest(furthest) 。
有些形容词没有比较级形式，如 :absolute ， chief ， entire ， eternal ， excellent ， fatal ， final ， foremost ， inevitable ， infinite ， main ， naked ， perfect ， possible ， primary ， right ， sufficient ， supreme ， universal ， utter ， vital ， whole ， wooden ， ect. 例如 :
Mary is the best student in the class.
Further negotiation will be conducted next month.
The food we have is sufficient .
Needless to say ， he is stronger than his opponent.
一般副词的比较级和最高级与形容词一样，单音节的以在词尾加 -er 和 -est 构成，多音节的以加 more 和 most 的方法构成 ; 有些比较特殊 , 如： well-better-best ， badly-worse-worst ， much-more-most ， little-less-least 。以 -ly 结尾的副词，在其前面加 more ， most 。例如 :
Tonny runs more beautiful than any other students in the class.
Which do you like best ， Thorn Birds ， Gone With the wind or great expectation?
I prefer less sugar in the milk.
She get more income every month than her husband.
形容词和副词的原级比较由 “as + 形容词或副词 ( 或后跟名词或短语 )+as” 构成， “as-as“ 前可加 not ， just ， almost ， nearly ， quite ， twice ， several times 等词修饰。否定式中 not 后面的 as 可改为 so 。例如 :”
Running for fifteen minutes will burn as much calories as walking for thirty minutes.
Henan Province is several times as large as shanghai.
Jimmy has as nervous a way of speaking as his father.
Getting rid of a bad habit isn't so simple as taking it up.
形容词与副词的比较级形式为 :“ 形容词 ( 副词 ) 比较级 +than+-” ，应注意 than 前后相比较的人或物要一致。比较级前可以跟 even ， much ， stilI 等副词修饰比较级，表示强调。例如 :
Mother worried much more about my younger brother than she did about me.
Sound travels faster through water than through air.
The economic development in south China is faster than that in North China .
My books are much more than Li ping's.
形容词与副词的最高级的形式分别为 :“the+ 形容词最高级 + 名词十范围表达 ” 和 “ 副词最高级十名词 + 范围表达 ” ，副词的比较级和最高级不需要加 the 。例如 :
Our foreign exchange reserve didn't decline despite the worst flood in sixty years.
I finished the work more successfully than he had expected.
应注意以下表达式的含义 :the same as( 和 …… 一样 ) ， no less than( 不少于 ) ， not less than( 只有 ) ， had better( 最好 ) ， less than( 不到 ) ， more or less( 或多或少 ) ， other than( 除了 ) ， rather than( 而不是 ) ， the more…the more/less( 越 …… 就越 ……)
例如 :I am sure that the amount of money used in repaying a loan would have the same value as the amount of money borrowed.
You had better finish your homework today for the teacher will collect it tomorrow .
We have received ten dozen of personal computers which are less than the amount we ordered.
The visitors to the exhibition were not less than three hundred, which disappointed them very much.
时态与语态
1. 时态
现在完成时表示过去某时开始的一个动作或状态一直延续到现在，表示现刻以前发生的动作或情况。常用状语 just, since, for, already, yet, ever, never, often, several times, lately, recently, during the last week, so far, up to now(the present) 等，由 since 引起短语（或从句）的句子里，主句的谓语应用完成时；若 since 引起一个从句，从句谓语可用过去时（表示行为的起点）。只有在 “it is ……since” 的句型中，主句才可用也可不用完成时。例如：
Japanese is certainly difficult for me as I have never learned it before.
We are living a hard life because Father has been unemployed for half a year.
I have planted thirty trees since I moved here.
现在完成时与过去时的比较：现在完成时表示某一动作一直延续到现在或已经完成，强调结果；而过去时表示发生在过去的动作，强调过去的动作。例如：
He has read the book for two hours.( 强调动作的持续 )
He has read the book.（强调动作的完成）
He read the book last night. （强调过去的动作，有过去时间状语）
过去完成时表示在过去某一时刻或某一动作之前已完成的动作。例如：
I still remember last summer vacation spent in Paris. That was the first time I had ever been to Europe.
Since he had eaten before he came to the party, he refused the hostess ' s offer of a cake.
将来完成时表示将来某一时间之前已经完成的动作，分为一般将来完成时和过去将来完成时。常用 by the time, at the end of 来引起。例如：
The debate will have begun by the time our English teacher arrives.
Tonny bad thought the train would have left by the time he got to the station.
At the end of next month, I will have finished this work.
现在完成进行时强调过去发生的动作一直延续到说话时刚结束，或动作仍在进行中。过去完成进行时表示动作延续到某一时间刚结束，或仍在进行。例如：
Eventually, I received the letter that I had been expecting for a long time.
When she retires, Mrs.Jones will have been teaching here for over thirty years, but her classes are never dull.
2. 语态
英语分为主动词态和被动词态。主动语态是指句中的主语是动作的执行者，而被动语态的主语是动作的承受者。英语中只有及物动词、动词短词和某些成语才能构成被动语态。被动语态的构成形式为 “be+ 动词的 -ed 分词 ” 。另外， “be+get+ 动词 -ed 分词 ” 是特殊形式。
1 ）动词的被动语态有以下几种时态的变化（以 find 为例：）
现在时： is (are)found 将来时： shall (will)be found 现在进行时： is (are)being found
现在完成时： have (has)been found 将来完成时： shall (will)have been found 过去时： was (were)found
过去将来时： should (would)be found 过去进行时： was (were)being found 过去完成时： had been found 过去将来完成时： should (would)have been found
例： Mineral water has been regarded by all people as a healthy drink.
The program bad been conducted in both the United States and Europe well before 1900.
2 ）能作及物动词的短语动词也可用被动态，应注意其固定搭配。例如：
The problem will be taken care of as soon as possible.
Although the mission was to be kept a secret, it was revealed to the press.
3 ）表示状态或特征的及物动词，如 :contain, cost, fit, have, lack, suit 等；不及物动词及动词短语，如： result from, belong to, consist of 等，不能用被动态。例如：
The magazine that I bought the day before yesterday costs me twenty and a half yuan.
Some critics maintain that when a work of literature lacks reference to the general experience of mankind, it fails as art.
