全文中英对照约2.2万字，阅读时间约20分钟。
This article aims to summarize the background of well-known and not so well-known Soviet rocket engines, the history of their development, their main characteristics, and the rockets they flew on.
本文旨在总结著名的和不太著名的苏联火箭发动机的背景、发展历史、主要特点，以及参与飞行过的火箭。
TABLE OF CONTENTS 目录
（长篇文章可根据自己的喜好跳转到相应部分）
Open Cycle Engines 开式循环发动机
Closed Cycle Engines 闭式循环发动机
Hypergolic Propellants 自燃型推进剂
LOx-based Propellants 基于液氧的推进剂
Specific Impulse (ISP) 比冲
Combustion Chamber 燃烧室
OKB 实验设计局（Opytnoye Konstruktorskoye Buro）
RD = Rocket Engine 火箭引擎
NK = Nikolay Kuznetsov 尼古拉·库兹涅佐夫（NK 只是他的首字母缩写）
S5.XX 除了 RD 和 NK 引擎，还有一些 S5.XX 引擎
A4 Engine A4引擎
Characteristics 特征
Leading Rocket Scientists 领先的火箭科学家
RD-100
RD-101
RD-102 And RD-103
KS-50 (Liliput)
RD-110
RD-107 And RD-108
Development 发展
Characteristics 特征
RD-117 And RD-118
RD-107A And RD-108A
Upper Stage Of R-7 R-7的初级阶段
RD-109
RD-0105
RD-0109
RD-0106, RD-0107, RD-0110
RD-0124
Fourth Stage Of R-7 R-7的第四阶段
S1.5400
S5.92
RD-214, RD-215, RD-216
RD-119
RD-217, RD-218, RD-219
Nedelin Disaster 尼德林灾难
RD-251, RD-252
RD-861
RD-261, RD-262
RD-263, RD-264
RD-268
RD-0202, RD-0203, RD-0204
RD-0205, RD-0206, RD-0207
RD-253
RD-253 On The Proton Rocket
First Stage Of Proton 质子的第一级
RD-275, RD-275M
Second Stage Of Proton 质子的第二级
RD-0208/9, RD-0210/11
ThiRD Stage Of Proton 质子的第三级
RD-0212, RD-0213, RD-0214
Fourth Stage Of Proton 质子的第四级
RD-58, RD-58M, RD-58S, RD-58MF
S5.98M
RD-270
NK-9
NK-15
NK-33
NK-33 On The Antares Rocket (安塔斯火箭)
NK-15V
NK-19
NK-21
RD-58
RD-56, RD-57
RD-170
Development
Characteristics
RD-0120
RD-58M
RD-171
RD-171M
RD-120
RD-58, S5.92
RD-180
RD-181
RD-191
RD-191
YF-100
CE-7.5
S2.253
RD-0410
RD-301
RD-501/502
RD-701/704
Start-1 Rocket
本篇将介绍：
1、Important Tips And Vocabulary
重要提示和词汇
2、The Origins Of Soviet Rocket Engines
苏联火箭发动机的起源
3、R-7 Family Of Engines
R-7 火箭引擎家族
In open cycle engines, the exhaust gas that is used to spin the turbine is simply discaRDed overboaRD from the gas generator. This is a simpler engine design than its counterpart, the closed cycle engine. However, it is less efficient, as a portion of propellant never reaches the main combustion chamber and, thus, is wasted.
在开式循环发动机中，用于旋转涡轮机的废气只是从气体发生器中被丢弃到引擎外。这是一种比其对应的闭式循环发动机更简单的发动机设计。然而，它的效率较低，因为一部分推进剂从未到达主燃烧室，因此被浪费了。
Closed cycle engines (or staged combustion cycle) have a pre-burner instead of a gas generator. It runs either all the fuel or all the oxidizer through the turbine, and then routes this now-hot gas into the main combustion chamber. This way no propellant is wasted. You can find more information on this topic in our video and/or article about SpaceX’s Raptor engine.
闭式循环发动机（或分阶段燃烧循环）有一个预燃烧器，而不是一个气体发生器。它通过涡轮机运行所有的燃料或所有的氧化剂，然后将这些现在很热的气体导入主燃烧室。这样就没有推进剂被浪费掉。你可以在我们关于SpaceX的猛禽发动机的视频和/或文章中找到关于这个主题的更多信息。
Hypergolic propellants are those that spontaneously combust upon contact with each other. This yields a very simple and reliable ignition sequence. Hypergolic propellants can be stored at room temperature and for long periods of time, however, this type of fuel is extremely toxic and corrosive.
自燃型推进剂是那些在相互接触时自发燃烧的推进剂。这产生了一个非常简单和可靠的点火顺序。高浓缩推进剂可以在室温下长期储存，然而，这种类型的燃料具有极大的毒性和腐蚀性。
LOx-based propellants are those that use liquid oxygen (LOx) as an oxidizer. Depending on the fuel component, there can be keralox (kerosene-based fuel), hydrolox (hydrogen-based fuel), and methalox (methane-based fuel). Keralox fuel used by Soviet rocket engines is called T-1 or RG-1 (not RP-1) and was comparable to regular kerosene. The haRDest part about a LOx-based propellant is to keep it at working temperatures without it warming up and boiling off before the launch.
基于液氧的推进剂是那些使用液态氧（LOx）作为氧化剂的推进剂。根据燃料成分的不同，可以有keralox（煤油基燃料）、hydrolox（氢基燃料）和methalox（甲烷基燃料）。苏联火箭发动机使用的Keralox燃料被称为T-1或RG-1（不是RP-1），与普通煤油相当。以液氧为基础的推进剂最难的部分是使其保持在工作温度，而不在发射前升温和沸腾。
ISP indicates how efficient the rocket engine is. It is measured in seconds, and the higher it is, the better. The best way to think about specific impulse is to imagine an engine with 1 kg of propellant. The amount of time (in seconds) that the engine can produce 9.81 N of force is its ISP. Thus, the higher the ISP, the less fuel it takes to perform the same amount of work.
ISP表明火箭发动机的效率如何。它的单位是秒，越高越好。思考比冲的最好方法是想象一个有1公斤推进剂的发动机。该发动机能够产生9.81牛的力的时间（以秒为单位）就是它的ISP。因此，ISP越高，做同样数量的功所需的燃料就越少。
The combustion chamber of a rocket engine is where the fuel and oxidizer get pumped in and meet at high pressure so they can combust and produce thrust. The larger the combustion chamber, the higher the thrust output. However, the larger it is, the haRDer it is to maintain stable combustion and homogeneous pressure within it, which can lead to massive failures in which the engine can blow up.
火箭发动机的燃烧室是燃料和氧化剂被泵入并在高压下相遇的地方，以便它们能够燃烧并产生推力。燃烧室越大，推力输出就越高。然而，它越大，就越难在其中保持稳定的燃烧和均匀的压力，这可能会导致发动机爆炸的大规模故障。
Experimental Design Bureaus (OKB, Opytnoye Konstruktorskoye Buro) were state-owned bureaus that mostly designed and produced weapons and military technology. They were very competitive with each other for different projects. One of these OKBs, formerly known as OKB-456, home of legendary propulsion engineer Valentin Glushko, is today known as NPO Energomash and is still producing engines and rockets.
实验设计局（OKB，Opytnoye Konstruktorskoye Buro）是国有的局，主要设计和生产武器和军事技术。他们在不同的项目中相互竞争，非常激烈。其中一个OKB，以前被称为OKB-456，是传奇的推进工程师瓦伦丁-格鲁什科的故乡，今天被称为NPO Energomash，仍然在生产发动机和火箭。
RD literally translates to Rocket Engine. There is an RD-0XXX series that came from OKB-154 led by Semyon Kosberg and tends to be used on upper stages or at least operates in a vacuum (with few exceptions). RD-1XX and RD-2XX engines were designed by OKB-456. The former tends to be LOx-based engines, while the latter ran on hypergolic propellants. Furthermore there was the RD-XX series mostly developed at OKB-1, the headquarters of the Soviet space program led by Sergei Korolev. Some RD-XX engines were developed by OKB-165, led by Arkhip Lyulka, despite OKB-165 primarily being an aircraft engine manufacturer. RD-8XX engines came from OKB-586, led by Mikhail Yangel.
RD的字面意思是火箭发动机。有一个RD-0XXX系列，来自塞米扬-科斯贝格领导的OKB-154，倾向于用于上面级或至少在真空中运行（有少数例外）。RD-1XX和RD-2XX发动机是由OKB-456设计的。前者往往是以液氧为基础的发动机，而后者则以高聚物推进剂运行。此外，还有RD-XX系列，主要是在OKB-1开发的，这是谢尔盖-科罗廖夫领导的苏联太空计划的总部。一些RD-XX发动机是由Arkhip Lyulka领导的OKB-165开发的，尽管OKB-165主要是一个飞机发动机制造商。RD-8XX发动机来自OKB-586，由米哈伊尔-杨格领导。
NK engines came from OKB-276, Kuznetsov’s design bureau. Nikolay Kuznetsov (NK is simply his initials) was an aircraft engine manufacturer who designed some of the most advanced engines. For instance, his NK-32 was a jet engine on the TU-160 strategic bomber, while the NK-33 is a rocket engine meant for a variant of the N-1 rocket.
NK发动机来自OKB-276，库兹涅佐夫的设计局。尼古拉-库兹涅佐夫（NK只是他名字的缩写）是一个飞机发动机制造商，他设计了一些最先进的发动机。例如，他的NK-32是TU-160战略轰炸机上的喷气式发动机，而NK-33则是用于N-1火箭的一个变种的火箭发动机。
Next to RD and NK engines, there were also some S5.XX engines. These engines were developed and built by OKB-2 led by Aleksei Isaev. OKB-2 primarily produced smaller rocket engines for missiles with the exception of S5.XX engines.
In addition, all Soviet engines are assigned with GRAU indices by the Main Missile and Artillery Directorate of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation. For example, the RD-107 engine’s index is 8D74. However, this system will not be used in this article.
除了RD和NK发动机之外，还有一些S5.XX发动机。这些发动机是由阿列克谢-伊萨耶夫领导的OKB-2公司开发和制造的。OKB-2主要生产用于导弹的小型火箭发动机，但S5.XX发动机除外。
此外，所有的苏联发动机都被俄罗斯联邦国防部的主要导弹和火炮局分配了GRAU的指数。例如，RD-107发动机的指数是8D74。然而，本文将不使用这一系统。
The origins of the first Soviet rocket engines stem from World War II when rockets were not used for noble goals, but rather as a terrifying weapon. It all started with the Nazi designed V-2 rocket. Although the A4 engine at the heart of the V-2 was not the first liquid-fueled rocket engine developed, it was certainly the first reliable one to reach space by crossing the Kármán line (an international definition that marks the edge of space and is defined as 100 km above sea level).
第一批苏联火箭发动机的起源源于第二次世界大战，当时火箭不是用于崇高的目标，而是作为一种可怕的武器。这一切都始于纳粹设计的V-2火箭。尽管作为V-2火箭核心的A4发动机并不是第一个开发的液体燃料火箭发动机，但它肯定是第一个通过跨越卡门线（一个标志着太空边缘的国际定义，被定义为海拔100公里）到达太空的可靠发动机。
The V-2 rocket brought a huge breakthrough in rocketry. The Germans solved one of the biggest problems of liquid-fueled engines – combustion instability. Their solution was to take smaller injectors and put them into a single main combustion chamber. The A4 wound up with eighteen injector cups and had a basket-like head configuration.
V-2火箭带来了火箭技术的巨大突破。德国人解决了液体燃料发动机的最大问题之一——燃烧不稳定。他们的解决方案是采用较小的喷油器，并将其放入一个主燃烧室。A4最终有18个喷油器杯，并有一个类似篮子的头部结构。
Characteristics
The V-2 rocket produced 265 kN of thrust at sea level and 294 kN in a vacuum, with an ISP of just over 200 s at sea level and 239 s in a vacuum. Although these numbers are not impressive by today’s standaRDs, this was only the beginning. The A4 engine ran at only 15 bar of pressure, on a 75% ethanol / 25% water mixture fuel, and used LOx as an oxidizer. The pumps of these engines were steam-powered by a separate system that ran hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) over a potassium permanganate (KMnO4) catalyst to create high-pressure steam, which would then spin the turbine that powered the pumps.
特点
V-2火箭在海平面产生265千牛的推力，在真空中产生294千牛的推力，在海平面的ISP略高于200秒，在真空中为239秒。尽管以今天的标准来看，这些数字并不令人印象深刻，但这仅仅是个开始。A4发动机在只有15巴的压力下运行，使用75%的乙醇/25%的水混合燃料，并使用液氧作为氧化剂。这些发动机的泵由一个单独的系统提供蒸汽动力，该系统在高锰酸钾（KMnO4）催化剂上运行过氧化氢（H2O2）以产生高压蒸汽，然后使涡轮机旋转，为泵提供动力。
During the Cold War, both the United States and the Soviet Union tried to outdo each other with more powerful and longer-range missiles carrying nuclear warheads. They each gathered thousands of former German rocket scientists who could help them to develop their own rockets. In the US, Wernher von Braun put a lot of effort into this. In the Soviet Union, it was Sergei Korolev (born in Ukraine) who was tasked with leading the former German scientists.
冷战期间，美国和苏联都试图以更强大和更远距离的携带核弹头的导弹来超越对方。他们各自聚集了数以千计的前德国火箭科学家，以帮助他们开发自己的火箭。在美国，沃纳-冯-布劳恩为此付出了大量的努力。在苏联，是谢尔盖-科罗廖夫（生于乌克兰）负责领导前德国科学家。
Korolev and his team of Soviet and former German engineers began reverse-engineering the V-2 rocket and the A4 engine, and rebuilding them. This way they built the RD-100 engine which was almost a clone of the A4, at least externally. In fact, there were some parts still machined in Germany in the old factories.
科罗廖夫和他的苏联前德国工程师团队开始对V-2火箭和A4发动机进行逆向工程，并重建它们。这样，他们制造了RD-100发动机，它几乎是A4的克隆，至少在外观上是如此。事实上，有一些零件仍然在德国的旧工厂中加工。
At the same time, Korolev and Glushko (OKB-456) wanted to make a modified version of the RD-100 which would not have any direct involvement from Germans and would only use Soviet fabricated parts. This was the RD-101 engine. It had only minor tweaks and took inspiration from some of Glushko’s former works, such as his RD-1, when it came to materials.
同时，科罗廖夫和格鲁什科（OKB-456）想制造一个RD-100的改进版，它不会有德国人的直接参与，只使用苏联制造的部件。这就是RD-101发动机。它只做了一些小的调整，并且在材料方面从格卢什科以前的一些作品中获得了灵感，例如他的RD-1。
By the end of 1949, there would be the RD-102 and RD-103 upgrades, which were the last engines based on the A4. These engines had substantially shortened engine thrust frames and were regeneratively cooled, in which some of the propellant or water was passed through tubes around the combustion chamber to cool the engine. Moreover, the RD-103 used a new oxygen mixing nozzle which used a more concentrated 92% ethyl alcohol fuel. This aided in performance and yielded a thrust of 500 kN in a vacuum, which almost doubled the thrust output of the A4’s 294 kN. The RD-103 could achieve an ISP of 244 s at sea level and 251 s in a vacuum.
到1949年底，有RD-102和RD-103的升级，这是最后一个基于A4的发动机。这些发动机大大缩短了发动机的推力框架，并且是再生冷却的，其中一些推进剂或水通过燃烧室周围的管道来冷却发动机。此外，RD-103使用了一个新的氧气混合喷嘴，它使用了一个更浓缩的92%的乙醇燃料。这有助于提高性能，在真空中产生500千牛的推力，这几乎是A4的294千牛推力输出的两倍。RD-103在海平面上可以达到244秒的ISP，在真空中可以达到251秒。
In 1950, Sergei Korolev got his own experimental bureau, OKB-1 (known today as RSC Energia), where the future of the Soviet space program would be developed.
Around that time, German scientists tried to simplify the design for chambers and injectors. Up until that point, all of the engines had a basket-like head with eighteen separate injector cups. However, there was a design for the injectors patented in Germany that was more of a showerhead shape. The engineers built a test chamber for these injectors and made a new style of engine called Liliput or KS-50. This chamber was a very simple cylindrical shape. Its walls had a 1-mm thick copper coating, which had greater thermal conductivity and could handle higher temperatures.
The KS-50 was the first engine capable of running on kerosene, which potentially provided much greater performance with the negative side effect of much higher temperatures. It was also the last engine developed with the direct involvement of German engineers.
1950年，谢尔盖-科罗廖夫有了自己的实验局，OKB-1（今天被称为RSC Energia），苏联太空计划的未来将在这里发展。
那时，德国科学家试图简化腔室和喷射器的设计。到那时为止，所有的发动机都有一个篮子一样的头部，有十八个独立的喷油杯。然而，有一个在德国获得专利的喷油器设计，更像是一个淋浴头的形状。工程师们为这些喷油器建造了一个试验室，并制造了一种新式发动机，称为Liliput或KS-50。这个试验室是一个非常简单的圆柱形。它的墙壁有一个1毫米厚的铜涂层，具有更大的导热性，可以处理更高的温度。
KS-50是第一台能够使用煤油的发动机，它可能提供更大的性能，但也有更高温度的负面影响。这也是苏联最后一款由德国工程师直接参与开发的发动机。
The lessons learned from the KS-50 came in handy when Glushko was trying to create the RD-110, a new engine capable of producing almost 1,200 kN of thrust at sea level. The RD-110 was supposed to fly on a new R-3 rocket that lacked any exterior aerodynamic fins for stability. Instead, it relied entirely on gimbaling the engine to steer and control the rocket. The plan was to use eighteen injectors, each with about 70 kN of thrust. In oRDer to develop these injectors, Soviet scientists engineered another experimental combustion chamber, the ED-140 (ED translates to “experimental engine”).
The RD-110 engine was very reliable, capable of running continually, and with a very consistent start up. But despite that, it was never test-fired, likely due to concerns over cooling. However, the ED-140’s DNA would see the light of day in another engine, the RD-107. In fact, its combustion chamber is still at the heart of one of the most famous Soviet rockets, the Soyuz-2.
当格鲁什科试图创建RD-110时，从KS-50中吸取的教训派上了用场，这是一种能够在海平面产生近1200千牛推力的新发动机。RD-110应该在一个新的R-3火箭上飞行，该火箭缺乏任何外部空气动力鳍以保持稳定。相反，它完全依靠发动机的万向节来引导和控制火箭。计划使用18个喷射器，每个喷射器有大约70千牛的推力。为了开发这些喷射器，苏联科学家设计了另一个实验性燃烧室，即ED-140（ED译为 "实验性发动机"）。
RD-110发动机非常可靠，能够持续运行，而且启动时非常稳定。但尽管如此，它从未进行过试射，可能是因为担心冷却问题。然而，ED-140的DNA将在另一台发动机，即RD-107中看到曙光。事实上，它的燃烧室仍然是最著名的苏联火箭之一，联盟-2号的核心。
Development
The R-7 was the first rocket to reach orbit. Originally, it had a very simple goal – to be able to carry a 3-tonne warhead over a distance of 8,000 km, which would make it possible to hit the USA from the Soviet Union. Glushko tried to scale up the ED-140 in a new design called the RD-105. However, he faced the problem of combustion instability. After that, he decided to split the combustion chamber into four smaller ones fed by a common turbopump, which solved the problem. In fact, this concept of multiple combustion chambers is a staple of many Soviet-era designs.
发展
R-7是第一枚进入轨道的火箭。最初，它有一个非常简单的目标--能够携带3吨重的弹头超过8000公里的距离，这将使它能够从苏联打击美国。格鲁什科试图在一个名为RD-105的新设计中扩大ED-140的规模。然而，他遇到了燃烧不稳定的问题。之后，他决定将燃烧室分成四个较小的燃烧室，由一个共同的涡轮泵供给，这就解决了这个问题。事实上，这种多燃烧室的概念是许多苏联时代设计的主要内容。
The developed RD-107 engine (for Stage 1) and its twin sibling the RD-108 (for Stage 2) are still in use today! These engines first flew on May 15, 1957, on the first R-7 rocket, which featured four strap-on boosters (Stage 1) that surrounded a single core (Stage 2). The RD-107 and RD-108 are almost identical. In fact, the only difference is the number of vernier engines, the outer boosters with the RD-107 have a pair of them, while the center core with the RD-108 has four. In addition, these engines were a much more elegant solution compared to the heavy control vanes made of graphite that would steer the V-2.
开发的RD-107发动机（用于第1阶段）和它的孪生兄弟RD-108（用于第2阶段）至今仍在使用。 这些发动机于1957年5月15日在第一枚R-7火箭上首次飞行，该火箭有四个捆绑式助推器（第1级），围绕着一个核心（第2级）。RD-107和RD-108几乎是相同的。事实上，唯一的区别是游标引擎的数量，RD-107的外部助推器有一对，而RD-108的中心核心有四个。此外，与引导V-2的重型石墨控制叶片相比，这些发动机是一个更优雅的解决方案。
Characteristics
Ignition
Both the RD-107 and RD-108 engines run on keralox. This allowed a simple ignition process where all cores of the rocket would be lit on the ground simultaneously and did not require starting an engine mid-flight. One of the interesting things about their ignition process is that the solution to light the engines is basically giant wooden matches. Those matches look like T-shaped structures which engineers would stick up the nozzle into the main combustion chamber. All 32 chambers (20 main ones and 12 steering nozzles known as vernier engines) get their own igniter. On the tip of these structures is a pair of pyrotechnics that only need one to light successfully for ignition. This concept is still in use today!
亮点
点火
RD-107和RD-108的发动机都基于煤油燃烧。这允许一个简单的点火过程，所有火箭的核心将在地面上同时被点燃，不需要在飞行中启动发动机。他们点火过程的一个有趣之处在于，点燃发动机的方案基本上是巨大的木制火柴。那些火柴看起来像T形结构，工程师们会将其从喷管上粘到主燃烧室中。所有32个燃烧室（20个主燃烧室和12个被称为游标引擎的转向喷嘴）都有自己的点火器。在这些结构的顶端是一对烟火剂，只需要一个就能成功点燃，进行点火。这个概念至今仍在使用!
Staging
The staging is relatively simple as all four boosters fall away at the same time. Meanwhile, a valve pops open in the LOx tank, which helps to propel the tanks away from the core stage in a pattern, known as the “Korolev cross”.
阶段性
分段是相对简单的，因为所有四个助推器都同时落下。同时，液氧罐中的一个阀门突然打开，这有助于推动罐体以一种被称为 "科罗廖夫十字 "的模式离开核心级。
Specifications
The RD-107 could hit 810 kN of thrust at sea level and 1,000 kN in a vacuum, with an ISP of 256 s at sea level, and 313 s in a vacuum. Meanwhile, the RD-108 could reach 745 kN of thrust at sea level and 941 kN in a vacuum, with an ISP of 248 s at sea level, and 315 s in a vacuum. Thus, they achieved huge improvements over the early RD-100 engines. Furthermore, the turbopump of the RD-107/108 was powered by steam just like the A4. They ran H2O2 over a catalyst to create high-pressure hot gases that spun the turbine and powered the LOx and kerosene pumps. For this reason, there was also a fully separate tank to store H2O2. This is a very simple solution which is still in use today.
Overall, the main innovations of these engines included multiple combustion chambers, regenerative cooling, the aforementioned vernier engines, and variable mixture ratio, which helped each core to drain its propellant equally. Since the RD-107/108 first flew in 1957, these engines have gone through only minor changes. As the old adage goes: “If it isn’t broken, why fix it?”
规格
RD-107在海平面可以达到810千牛的推力，在真空中可以达到1000千牛，海平面的ISP为256秒，真空中为313秒。同时，RD-108在海平面可以达到745千牛的推力，在真空中可以达到941千牛，在海平面的ISP为248秒，在真空中为315秒。因此，他们比早期的RD-100发动机取得了巨大的改进。此外，RD-107/108的涡轮泵是由蒸汽驱动的，就像A4一样。他们在催化剂上运行H2O2以产生高压热气，使涡轮机旋转并为液氧和煤油泵提供动力。出于这个原因，也有一个完全独立的水箱来储存H2O2。这是一个非常简单的解决方案，至今仍在使用。
总的来说，这些发动机的主要创新包括多燃烧室、再生冷却、上述的游标发动机和可变混合比，这有助于每个核心的推进剂的平均排出。自1957年RD-107/108首次飞行以来，这些发动机只经历了微小的变化。正如那句老话所说。"如果它没有坏，为什么要修理它？"
There were the RD-117/118 upgrades which flew 786 times from 1973 to 2017 on the Soyuz U and U2. They were very similar to the original RD-107/108 and had only minor structural changes. For example, they had different injectors, which increased their performance a little. Moreover, the RD-117/118 sometimes ran on a fuel called Syntin, a hydrocarbon-based fuel. This fuel also offered increased performance, however, it was much more expensive.
有RD-117/118的升级版，从1973年到2017年在联盟U和U2上飞行了786次。它们与原来的RD-107/108非常相似，只有很小的结构变化。例如，它们有不同的喷射器，这使它们的性能提高了一点。此外，RD-117/118有时使用一种叫做Syntin的燃料，一种碳氢化合物燃料。这种燃料也提供了更高的性能，然而，它要昂贵得多。
Finally, there was the RD-107A/108A that flew 70 times from 2001 through 2019 on the Soyuz FG. In addition, these engines support the new Soyuz-2, which started flying in 2004 and is still in use today. Meanwhile, the center core of the Soyuz-2.1v rocket, which started flying in 2013, does not run on the RD-108A, but on the closed cycle NK-33 engine. This engine was developed for the Soviet Union’s massive N1F moon rocket.
The RD-107A produced 839 kN of thrust at sea level and 1,020 kN in a vacuum, with an ISP of 263 s at sea level and 320 s in a vacuum. Otherwise, they have very few changes compared to the original.
最后是RD-107A/108A，从2001年到2019年在联盟号FG上飞行了70次。此外，这些发动机支持新的联盟-2号，它在2004年开始飞行，至今仍在使用。同时，2013年开始飞行的联盟-2.1v火箭的中心核心不在RD-108A上运行，而是在封闭循环的NK-33发动机上运行。这种发动机是为苏联庞大的N1F登月火箭开发的。
RD-107A在海平面产生839千牛的推力，在真空中产生1020千牛的推力，海平面的ISP为263秒，真空中为320秒。除此之外，与原版相比，它们的变化非常小。
In oRDer to increase its capacity, the R-7 rocket needed to have an upper (thiRD) stage. The first upper stage that they developed had a mighty task, to reach the Moon!
为了增加其容量，R-7火箭需要有一个上面（第三级）。他们开发的第一个上面级有一个强大的任务，那就是到达月球！这就是R-7的上面级。
The Soviet Union began developing the 8K73 upper stage in 1957. For this, Glushko designed an RD-109 engine, which had an impressive ISP of 334 s and could produce 102 kN of thrust in a vacuum. The RD-109 ran on LOx and UDMH (unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine), which is a very toxic fuel that Korolev did not like to use. As a result, this engine never saw a flight.
苏联在1957年开始研制8K73上面级。为此，格鲁什科设计了一台RD-109发动机，它的ISP值为334秒，在真空中可以产生102千牛的推力，令人印象深刻。RD-109使用LOx和UDMH（不对称二甲肼），这是一种非常有毒的燃料，科罗廖夫不喜欢使用。因此，这款发动机从未飞行过。
The Vostok variant of the R-7 wound up being the first R-7 rocket to have a thiRD stage called Block E, which made it more capable. This stage was powered by the RD-0105 engine (designed by Kosberg), which was based on the vernier engines on the RD-107/108 and ran on keralox. The RD-0105 could produce 49 kN of thrust in a vacuum at an ISP of 316 s.
R-7火箭的沃斯托克变体最终成为第一个拥有第三级的R-7火箭，被称为E块，这使得它的能力更强。该级由RD-0105发动机（由科斯贝格设计）提供动力，该发动机是基于RD-107/108上的游标发动机，以煤油为燃料。RD-0105可以在真空中产生49千牛的推力，ISP为316秒。
Meanwhile, Glushko wanted to upgrade the engine for an even more powerful upper stage for a version of Vostok – the Vostok-K. As a result, he developed the RD-0109, which had a lower mass and increased reliability thanks to its new lightweight combustion chamber. These improvements made it capable of putting Yuri Gagarin into orbit on April 12, 1961! Subsequently, John Glenn became the first American to orbit Earth (Mercury-Atlas 6) onboaRD Friendship 7 on February 20th, 1962.
与此同时，格鲁什科想为 "东方号 "的一个版本--"东方号"--K升级发动机，以获得更强大的上面级。因此，他开发了RD-0109，由于其新的轻质燃烧室，质量更低，可靠性更高。这些改进使它能够在1961年4月12日将尤里-加加林送入轨道 随后，约翰-格伦于1962年2月20日在友谊7号上成为第一个进入地球轨道的美国人（水星-阿特拉斯6号）。
One interesting aspect of the engine on this stage is that it starts its ignition sequence prior to stage separation. This process is called “hot fire staging” and it is possible because of the open interstage. Thanks to this feature, there was no need to have any other secondary motors to accelerate the upper stage to settle the propellant on the bottom of the tanks before turning on the engine. This is needed to avoid sucking up air bubbles and having rough starts that could damage the engines. Some other Soviet rockets also make use of this interstage design.
这个阶段的发动机的一个有趣的方面是，它在阶段分离之前就开始了它的点火顺序。这个过程被称为 "热分离"，它之所以能够实现是因为级间的开放。由于这一特点，不需要有任何其他次级发动机来加速上级，以便在开启发动机之前将推进剂沉淀在罐底。这是需要的，以避免吸进气泡和粗糙的启动，从而损坏发动机。其他一些苏联火箭也利用了这种级间设计。
After that, there was an RD-0106, which was a four-chamber version of the RD-0105/0109 and offered over four times the thrust. It was used on the Block-I thiRD stage for the Molniya rocket that flew for the first time in 1960.
The RD-0106 was then slightly modified to the RD-0107 and after that to the RD-0108. It flew 300 times on the Voskhod R-7 from 1963 to 1976. Subsequently, there was the RD-0110, which saw its first flight in 1965 and is still in use today on the Soyuz-2.1a rocket.
此后，又出现了RD-0106，它是RD-0105/0109的四室版本，推力是四倍以上。它被用在1960年首次飞行的 "闪电 "火箭的Block-I第三级上。
随后，RD-0106被稍微修改为RD-0107，之后又被修改为RD-0108。从1963年到1976年，它在Voskhod R-7上飞行了300次。随后，出现了RD-0110，它在1965年进行了首次飞行，至今仍在联盟-2.1a火箭上使用。
There was also the RD-0124, which is a closed cycle engine that the Soviets intended to use universally on several vehicles. It did not have any vernier engines and used RG-1 instead of the usual T-1 kerosene. This closed cycle engine offered an improved ISP of 359 s instead of 326 s, which was practical for larger payloads. It first started flying in 2006 and is still in use today on the Soyuz 2.1b.
还有RD-0124，它是一种封闭式循环发动机，苏联人打算在几种车辆上普遍使用。它没有任何游标引擎，使用RG-1而不是通常的T-1煤油。这种闭合循环发动机提供了一个改进的ISP，即359秒，而不是326秒，这对较大的有效载荷来说是实用的。它在2006年首次开始飞行，至今仍在联盟2.1b号上使用。
The R-7 also considered a fourth stage, even before Yuri Gagarin made his famous flight. It was first flown on the Molniya rocket, an early variant of the R-7 that flew 40 times with a 50% success rate. The performance of this rocket was even high enough for interplanetary missions.
R-7也考虑了第四级，甚至在尤里-加加林进行他的著名飞行之前。它首先在 "闪电 "火箭上飞行，这是R-7的一个早期变体，飞行了40次，成功率为50%。这种火箭的性能甚至高到可以进行星际飞行任务。
In 1958, the Soviets began developing a closed cycle oxygen-rich engine called S1.5400. Back then, this engine type was considered impossible by US engineers. Initially, this engine had only 64 kN of thrust in a vacuum. However, it could achieve an impressive ISP of 338 s. It was way ahead of its time for a keralox engine and it flew successfully in 1961 on a mission to Venus, the very first interplanetary probe! The real breakthrough was developing metals, such as titanium alloys, that could withstand harsh conditions, such as having hot gaseous oxygen blasting.
The S1.5400 engine became the basis for many engines for other rockets, despite having a very limited presence on the R-7 family and has only flown 4 times in total.
1958年，苏联开始开发一种名为S1.5400的封闭式循环富氧发动机。在当时，这种发动机类型被美国工程师认为是不可能的。最初，这种发动机在真空中只有64千牛的推力。然而，它可以达到338秒的令人印象深刻的ISP。它在当时的喀拉罗克斯发动机中遥遥领先，并且在1961年成功飞往金星的任务中，这是第一个星际探测器！真正的突破是开发金属。真正的突破是开发金属，如钛合金，可以承受恶劣的条件，如有热气态氧爆破。
S1.5400发动机成为其他火箭许多发动机的基础，尽管在R-7家族中的存在非常有限，总共只飞过4次。
The Soyuz-U was the next R-7 to have a fourth stage powered by the S5.92 engine on the upper stage called Fregat, which first flew in 1973. It was a small open cycle hypergolic-fueled engine that produced 19.6 kN of thrust with an ISP of 327 s in a vacuum. It could be re-lit up to 50 times in space with up to 300 days between ignitions.
联盟-U是下一个R-7，它的第四级由上级的S5.92发动机提供动力，称为Fregat，它在1973年首次飞行。它是一个小型的开放式循环高醇燃料发动机，在真空中产生19.6千牛的推力，ISP为327秒。它可以在太空中重新点火50次，两次点火之间的间隔时间可达300天。
上篇完，中篇将介绍：
4、Yangel’s Hypergolic Rockets
杨格尔的自燃型火箭
5、Universal Family Of Rockets
通用型火箭家族
6、N1 Rocket Engines
N1 火箭引擎
本文许可CC BY-NC-SA 4.0协议(creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.zh)
翻译：天外飞舰
原文作者：Everyday Astronaut
原文标题：Soviet Rocket Engines
文章英文原版：
https://everydayastronaut.com/soviet-rocket-engines/
由于原版文章近5万字过长，因而分3篇。
欢迎指出翻译细节问题。原文转载翻译，有收获的话记得关注、长按点赞一键三连哦~
联系客服
