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2011高考实用英语语法笔记(二)
Chapter 7. 动词不定式
一、概念:
动词不定式由to+动词原形构成。这里的to是不定式标志,没有词义。不定式具有名词、形容词或副词的某些语法功能,又有动词的时态和语态的特点及作用。
常见的形式如表所示(以及物动词do为例),不及物动词没有被动语态。
时态\语态
主动
被动
一般式
to do
to be done
进行式
to be doing
/
完成式
to have done
to have been done
完成进行式
to have been doing
/
二、相关知识点精讲:
1、有些动词可以用不定式作宾语,大致上有三种情况。
1)有些及物动词用不定式作宾语,结构为动词+不定式。例如:
afford
aim
agree
arrange
ask
decide
bother
care
choose
demand
desire
determine
elect
endeavor
hope
fail
help
learn
long 渴望
mean
manage
offer
plan
pretend
refuse
tend
undertake
expect
hate
intend
例如:The driver failed to see the other car in time. 司机没能及时看见另一辆车。
He offered to help me. 他表示愿意帮助我。
2)有些动词除了可以用不定式作宾语,还用不定式作补语,即有动词+宾语+不定式的结构。例如:
ask
choose
expect
help
want
beg
intend
like/love
need
prefer
prepare
wish
例如:I like you to keep everything tidy.我喜欢你使每件东西都保持整洁。
3)有些动词或动词词组可以用动词+疑问词+不定式的结构作宾语。例如:
decide
know
consider
forget
learn
explain
remember
show,
wonder
find out
tell
inquire
例如:There are so many kinds of tape-recorders on sale that I can't make up my mind which to buy.
2、不定式作补语
1)有些有动词+宾语+不定式的结构。例如:
advise
allow
cause
challenge
command
urge
compel
drive 驱使
enable
encourage
forbid
force
train
impel
induce
instruct
invite
like/love
order
tell
permit
make
let
have
want
get
send
warn
persuade
request
例如:Father will not allow us to play on the street./The officer ordered his men to fire.
注:有些动词如make,have,get,want等可用不定式作做宾补,也可用分词作宾补。现在分词表达主动,也表达正在进行,过去分词表达被动。
2)有些有动词+宾语+不定式的结构,不定式的动词往往是be,不定式一般可以省去。例如:consider、find、believe、think、declare(声称)、appoint、guess、fancy(设想)、guess、judge、imagine、know。
例如:Charles Babbage is generally considered to have invented the first computer.
3)有些动词可以跟there +to be的结构。例如:believe、expect、intend、like、love、mean、prefer、want、wish、understand。
例如:We didn't expect there to be so many people there. 我们没料到会有那么多人在那里。
3、不定式作主语
不定式作主语,往往用it作形式主语,真正的主语不定式放至句子的后面。
例如:It's necessary for you to lock the car when you do not use it. 不用车的时候,锁车是有必要的。
It seemed selfish of him not to give them anything. 他不给他们任何东西,这显得太自私了。
但是,用不定式作主语的句子中还有一个不定式作表语时,不能用It is… to…的句型。另外,这样的句子,不能用动名词作表语。
4、It's for sb.和 It's of sb.
句子中,由于表语形容词性质的不同,导致了不定式逻辑主语标志用for或of的区别。
1)for sb.句型中的形容词一般为表示事物的特征特点,表示客观形式的形容词,如easy, hard, difficult, interesting, impossible等:例如:It's very hard for him to study two languages. 对他来说学两门外语是很难的。
2)of sb句型中的形容词一般为表示性格,品德,心智能力,表示主观感情或态度的形容词,如good, kind, nice, clever, foolish, right。例如:It's very nice of you to help me. 你来帮助我,你真是太好了。
用for还是用of 的另一种辨别方法:用介词for或of后面的逻辑主语作句子的主语,用介词前边的形容词作表语,造个句子。如果通顺用of,不通则用for。
5、不定式作表语:不定式可放在be动词后面,形成表语。例如:My work is to clean the room every day.
6、不定式作定语:不定式做定语通常要放在被修饰的词后,往往表示未发生的动作。例如:There was nothing to bring home that morning.
7、不定式作状语
1)目的状语:常用结构为to do , only to do(仅仅为了), in order to do, so as to do, so(such)… as to…(如此…以便…)。例如:
He ran so fast as to catch the first bus. 他飞快地跑以便赶上第一班车。
I come here only to say good-bye to you. 我来仅仅是向你告别。
2)作结果状语,可以表示没有预料到的或事与愿违的结果,不定式要放在句子后面。
I awoke to find my truck gone. 我醒来发现箱子不见了。
He searched the room only to find nothing. 他搜索了房间,没发现什么。
3)表原因,例如:She wept to see the sight. 她一看到这情形就哭了。
4)表示理由和条件,例如:You will do well to speak more carefully.
8、用作介词的to:to可以用作介词,也可用作不定式的标示。下面的to都用作介词:admit to、object to、be accustomed to、be used to、stick to、turn to开始、look forward to、be devoted to、pay attention to、contribute to、apologize to、devote oneself to
9、省去to 的动词不定式
1)情态动词(除ought 外) 后。
2)使役动词 let, have, make后,感官动词 see, watch, look at, notice , observe, hear, listen to, smell, feel, find 等后。
注:被动语态中不能省去to。例如:The boss made them work the whole night. =They were made to work the whole night.
3) would rather,had better句型后;
4) Why… / why no…句型后;
5) help后可带to,也可不带to, help sb(to) do sth;
6) but和except后。but前是实义动词do时,后面出现的不定式不带to。
7)由and, or和than连接的两个不定式,第二个to 可以省去:
8)通常在discover, imagine, suppose, think等词后作宾补时,可以省去to be。例如:He is supposed (to be) nice.
10、动词不定式的否定式:在不定式标志to前加上not。例如:She pretended not to see me when I passed by.
11、不定式的特殊句型
1) too…to…句型:
①too…to,太…以至于…。例如:He is too excited to speak. 他太激动了,说不出话来。
②如在too前有否定词,则整个句子用否定词表达肯定,too 后那个词表达一种委婉含义,意 为"不太"。例如:
It's never too late to mend.  改过不嫌晚。(谚语)
③当too 前面有only, all, but时,意思是:非常… 等于very。例如:
I'm only too pleased to be able to help you. 能帮助你我非常高兴。
He was but too eager to get home. 他非常想回家。
2)so as to句型:
①表示目的;它的否定式是so as not to do。例如:Go in quietly so as not to wake the baby.轻点进去,别惊醒了婴儿。
②表示结果。例如:Would you be so kind as to tell me the time? 劳驾,现在几点了。
3)Why not句型:"Why not +动词原形"表达向某人提出建议,翻译为:"为什么不……?" "干吗不……?"。例如:
Why not take a holiday?  干吗不去度假?
12、不定式的时态和语态
1)一般式表示的动词,有时与谓语动词表示的动作同时发生,有时发生在谓语动词的动作之后,例如
I hope to see you again. = I hope that I'll see you again. 我希望再见到你。
2)完成式表示的动作发生在谓语动词表示的动作之前。例如:I'm sorry to have given you so much trouble.
3)进行式表示动作正在进行,与谓语动词表示的动作同时发生。例如:He seems to be eating something.
4)完成进行式表示动作从过去开始并延续至说话的时候。例如:
She is known to have been working on the problem for many years. 我们知道她研究这问题有好几年了。
13、动名词与不定式
1)动名词与不定式的区别:
动名词表达的是:状态,性质,心境,抽象,经常性,已发生的;不定式表达的是:目的,结果,原因,具体,一次性,将发生的。
2)有些动词如continue接不定式或动名词作宾语,意义基本相同。
3)有些动词如continue接不定式或动名词作宾语,意义大相径庭。常见的,在特殊词精讲中专门讨论。
14、特殊词精讲
动词
动词形式
例句
stop
stop to do:停止,中断做某事后去做另一件事
stop doing:停止做某事。
She reached the top of the hill and stopped to rest on a big rock by the side of the path.
forget
forget to do:忘记要去做某事
forget doing:忘记做过某事。
He forgot turning the light off. 他忘记他已经关了灯了。(已做过关灯的动作)
remember
remember to do:记得去做某事,
remember doing:记得做过某事。
Don't you remember seeing the man before?你不记得以前见过那个人吗?
regret
regret to do:对将要做的事遗憾,
regret doing:对做过的事遗憾、后悔。
I don't regret telling her what I thought.
cease
cease to do:长时间,甚至永远停做某事,
cease doing:短时停止做某事,以后还会接着做。
The girls ceased chatting for a moment when their teacher passed by.
try
try to do:努力,企图做某事,
try doing:试验,试着做某事。
I tried gardening but didn't succeed.
You must try to be more careful.
go on
go on to do:做了一件事后,接着做另一件事,
go on doing:继续做原来做的事。
After he had finished his maths,he went on to do his physics.
Go on doing the other exercise after you have finished this one.
be interested
be interested to do对做某事感兴趣,想了解某事,
interested in doing对某种想法感兴趣。
I shall be interested to know what happens.
我很想知道发生了什么事。(想了解)
mean
mean to do 打算、想,mean doing意味着。
I mean to go, but my father would not allow me to.
be afraid
be afraid to do:不敢,胆怯去做某事,是主观上的原因不去做,意为"怕",be afraid of doing:担心出现doing的状况、结果。doing 是客观上造成的,意为"生怕,恐怕"。
She was afraid to step further in grass because she was afraid of being bitten by a snake.
她生怕被蛇咬着,不敢在草丛中再走一步。
感官动词 see, watch, observe, notice, look at, hear, listen to, smell, taste, feel + do表示动作的完整性,+doing 表示动作的进行性。
例如:I saw him work in the garden yesterday. 昨天我看见他在花园里干活了。(强调"我看见了"这个事实)
I saw him working in the garden yesterday.(强调"我见他正干活"这个动作)昨天我见他正在花园里干活。
典型例题:The missing boy was last seen ___ near the river.
A. playing  B. to be playing  C. play  D. to play
答案:A. 本题强调其动作,正在河边玩,应此用see sb. doing sth句型。
Chapter 8. 分词
一、概念:
分词既有动词的特征,由有形容词和副词的特征。分词有现在分词和过去分词两种。现在分词有一般式和完成式,过去分词没有这种区别。及物动词的现在分词还有主动形式和被动形式的区别。分词常用的形式如表所示(以及物动词do 和不及物动词go为例):
do
go
主动
被动
现在分词
doing
being done
going
过去分词
/
done
gone
完成式
having done
having been done
/
二、相关知识点精讲:
1、分词作定语
不及物动词的现在分词作定语表达强调动作正在进行,过去分词强调完成;及物动词的现在分词作定语强调主动,过去分词强调被动。分词的完成式一般不作定语。分词作其他成分时,也是如此。分词作定语,单个的分词作定语一般前置;分词词组,个别分词如given, left等,修饰不定代词等的分词,作定语需后置。例如:
We can see the rising sun./ He is a retired worker./ This is the question given.
注:分词作定语相当于定语从句,如Most of the people invited to the party were famous scientists. = Most of the people who wereinvited to the party were famous scientists.
2、分词作状语
①现在分词短语可以表示一个同时发生的次要的或伴随的动作:
Following Tom, we started to climb the mountain./Opening the drawer, he took out a box.
②现在分词短语还可以表示原因, 相当于一个原因状语从句:
Not knowing her address, we couldn’t get in touch with her./Being unemployed, he hasn’t got much money.
③现在分词短语还可以表示时间, 相当于一个时间状语从句:
Hearing the news, they all jumped with joy./Having found a hotel, we looked for somewhere to have dinner.
Followed by some officials, Napoleon inspected his army.= With some officials following, Napoleon inspected his army.
注:选择现在分词还是过去分词,关键看主句的主语。如分词的动作是主句的主语发出,分词就选用现在分词(主动),反之就用过去分词(被动)。
3、连词+分词(短语)
有时为使分词短语与主句关系更清楚,可在分词前加连词。 连词有: when,while,if though,after, before, as. 但分词的主语和主句的主语必须为同一个。例如:
While waiting there, he saw two pretty girls come out of the building.
4、分词作补语
通常在感官动词和使役动词see,hear,catch,find,keep,have等之后。例如:I found my car missing. /I 'll have my watch repaired.
5、分词作表语
表示主语的状态等,很多动词的现在分词都可以作表语,如:exciting, interesting, encouraging, disappointing, confusing, touching, puzzling.。例如:She looked tired with cooking./ He remained standing beside the table.
6、分词作插入语
分词作插入语的结构是固定的,意思上的主语并不是句子的主语。例如:generally speaking 一般说来、strictly speaking 严格的说、judging from 从…判断、all things considered 从整体来看、taking all things into consideration 全面看来
Judging from his face, he must be ill./Generally speaking, dogs can run faster than pigs.
7、分词的时态
1)一般式表示与主语动词同时发生。例如:
Hearing the news, he jumped with joy. /Arriving there, they found the boy dead.
The secretary worked late into the night, preparing a long speech for the president.
2)完成时表示先于主语动词发生。例如:
While walking in the garden,he hurt his leg. 在花园里散步时他伤了腿。
分词作时间状语,如果先与主动词的动作,且强调先后, 要用having done。
Having finished his homework, he went out. =As he had finished his homework, he went out.
8、分词的语态
1)通常,现在分词表示主动,过去分词表示被动。例如:
He is the man giving you the money. (= who gave you…)他就是给你钱的那个人。
He is the man stopped by the car. (= who was stopped by…)他就是那个被车拦住的人。
2)不及物动词的过去分词表示动作已经发生,如gone, fallen, retired, grown-up, escaped, faded, returned等。
Chapter 9. 动名词
一、概念:
动名词是非限定动词的一种形式,由动词原形+ing构成。它既有动词的特征,又有名词的特征,是一种非谓语动词形式。动名词也有时态和语态的变化,如表所示(以及物动词write为例),不及物动词没有语态的变化。
时态/语态
主动
被动
一般式
writing
being written
完成式
having written
having been written
二、相关知识点精讲:
1、动名词作主语,例如:Fighting broke out between the South and the North.
2、动名词作宾语:
1)有些动词可以用动名词作宾语。例如:
admit 承认
appreciate 感激
avoid 避免
complete完成
consider认为
delay 耽误
deny 否认
detest 讨厌
endure 忍受
enjoy 喜欢
escape 逃脱
fancy 想象
finish 完成
imagine 想象
mind 介意
miss 想念
postpone推迟
practice 训练
recall 回忆
resent 讨厌
resume 继续
resist 抵抗
risk 冒险
suggest 建议
face 面对
include 包括
stand 忍受
understand 理解
forgive 宽恕
keep 继续
例如:Would you mind turning down your radio a little, please? 你把收音机音量调小一点,好吗
The squirrel was lucky that it just missed being caught. 这松鼠幸运得很,刚逃避了被逮住的厄运。
2)有些结构后面可以用动名词作宾语或其他成分。例如:
admit to
prefer…to
be used to
lead to
devote oneself to
object to
stick to
no good
no use
be fond of
look forward to
be proud of
be busy
can't help
be tired of
be capable of
be afraid of
think of
burst out
keep on
insist on
count on
set about
put off
be good at
take up
give up
be successful in
3)作表语,对主语说明、解释。例如:Her job is washing, cleaning and taking care of the children.
4)作定语,一般表示所修饰名词事物的用途。例如:a writing desk=a desk for writing 写字台
有些动名词作定语,与所修饰的名词关系比较复杂。例如:boiling point=a temperature point at which something begins to boil
3、worth 的用法
worth, worthy, worthwhile都是形容词,意为"值得"。
1)worth: be worth + n.;be worth doing sth.;It’s worth while to do./ It ’s worth(someone’s)while doing;例如:
The question is not worth discussing again and again. 这问题不值得反复讨论。
2)worthy:be worthy of +n.当名词为抽象名词时表示"……值得……"
be worthy to be done "某事值得被做"
例如:The question is not worthy to be discussed again and again.
3)worthwhile:be worthwhile to do sth"值得做某事"
例如:It is worthwhile to ask him to join the club.值得邀请他加入俱乐部。
Chapter 10. 形容词和副词
一、概念:
形容词修饰名词,说明事物或人的性质或特征。通常,可将形容词分成性质形容词和叙述形容词两类,其位置不一定都放在名词前面。其中直接说明事物的性质或特征的形容词是性质形容词,它有级的变化,可以用程度副词修饰,在句中可作定语、表语和补语。例如:hot。叙述形容词只能作表语,所以又称为表语形容词。这类形容词没有级的变化,也不可用程度副词修饰。大多数以a开头的形容词都属于这一类。如:afraid,well,unwell,ill,faint,afraid,alike,alive,alone,asleep,awake 等。
例如:He is an ill man.(×);The man is ill.(√);
形容词作定语修饰名词时,要放在名词的前边。但是如果形容词修饰以-thing为字尾的词语时,要放在这些词之后。例如:something nice.
副词主要用来修饰动词,形容词,副词或其他结构。
二、相关知识点精讲:
1、形容词与副词:
1)大部分形容词加-ly可构成副词。但 friendly,deadly,lovely,lonely,likely,lively,ugly,brotherly,仍为形容词。
2)有些以-ly结尾既为形容词,也为副词,如daily,weekly,monthly,yearly,early等。例如:
The Times is a weekly paper./ The Times is published weekly.
2、用形容词表示类别和整体:
1)某些形容词加上定冠词可以泛指一类人,与谓语动词的复数连接,如the dead,the living,the rich,the poor,the blind,the hungry等。例如:The poor are losing hope.
2) 有关国家和民族的形容词加上定冠词指这个民族的整体,与动词的复数连用,如the British,the English,the French,the Chinese等。例如:The English have wonderful sense of humor.
3、多个形容词修饰名词的顺序:
多个形容词修饰名词时,其顺序为:限定词→数词→描绘词→(大小,长短,形状,新旧,颜色)→出处→材料性质→类别→名词。例如:a small round table/ a tall gray building/ a dirty old brown shirt/an expensive Japanese sports car
4、副词的位置:①在动词之前。②在be动词、助动词之后。③多个助动词时,副词一般放在第一个助动词后。
注:①大多数方式副词位于句尾,但宾语过长,副词可以提前,以使句子平衡。例如:
We could see very clearly a strange light ahead of us.我们清楚地看到前面有奇怪的光。
②方式副词well,badly,hard等只放在句尾。例如:He speaks English well.
5、副词的排列顺序:
1)时间,地点副词,小单位的在前,大单位在后。
2)方式副词,短的在前,长的在后,并用and或but等连词连接。例如:Please write slowly and carefully.
3)多个不同副词排列:程度+地点+方式+时间副词。
注:①副词very可以修饰形容词,但不能修饰动词。
②副词enough要放在形容词的后面,形容词enough放在名词前后都可。例如:There is food enough for everyone to eat.
6、兼有两种形式的副词:
副词
意义
例句
close与closely
close意思是"近";closely 意思是"仔细地"
He is sitting close to me. 他就坐在我边上。
Watch him closely. 盯着他。
late 与lately
late意思是"晚";lately 意思是"最近"
You have come too late. 你来得太晚了。
What have you been doing lately? 近来好吗?
deep与deeply
deep意思是"深",表示空间深度;deeply时常表示感情上的深度,"深深地"。
He pushed the stick deep into the mud.他把棍子深深插进泥里。
Even father was deeply moved by the film.老爸也被电影深深打动了。
high与highly
high表示空间高度;highly表示程度,相当于much。
The plane was flying high. 这架飞机飞得很高。
I think highly of your opinion. 你的看法很有道理。
wide与widely
wide表示空间宽度;widely意思是"广泛地","在许多地方"。
He opened the door wide. 他把门开得大大的。
English is widely used in the world.英语在世界范围内广泛使用。
free与freely
free的意思是"免费";freely 的意思是"无限制地"。
You can eat free in my restaurant whenever you like.
You may speak freely; say what you like.
7、形容词与副词的比较级:
大多数形容词(性质形容词)和副词有比较级和最高级的变化,即原级、比较级和最高级,用来表示事物的等级差别。原级即形容词的原形,比较级和最高级有规则变化和不规则变化两种。
1)规则变化:单音节词和少数双音节词,加词尾-er,-est来构成比较级和最高级。
构成法
原级
比较级
最高级
一般单音节词未尾加-er,-est
tall
taller
tallest
以不发音的e结尾的单音词和少数以- le结尾的双音节词只加-r,-st
nice
nicer
nicest
以一个辅音字母结尾的闭音节单音节词,双写结尾的辅音字母,再加-er,-est
big
bigger
biggest
"以辅音字母+y"结尾的双音节词,改y为i,再加-er,-est
busy
busier
busiest
少数以-er,-ow结尾的双音节词未尾加-er,-est
narrow
narrower
narrowest
其他双音节词和多音节词,在前面加more,most来构成比较级和最高级
important
more important
most important
2) 不规则变化
原级
比较级
最高级
good
better
best
well(健康的)
worse
worst
bad
ill(有病的)
old
older/elder
oldest/eldest
much/many
more
most
little
less
least
far
farther/further
farthest/furthest
8、as +形容词或副词原级+ as:
1)在否定句或疑问句中可用so… as。例如:He cannot run so/as fast as you. 他没你跑得快。
2)当as… as 中间有名词时采用以下格式:as +形容词+ a +单数名词/ as + many/much +名词。例如:
This is as good an example as the other is. 这个例子和另外一个一样好。
I can carry as much paper as you can. 你能搬多少纸,我也能。
3)用表示倍数的词或其他程度副词做修饰语时,放在as的前面。例如:This room is twice as big as that one.
4)倍数+ as + adj. + as<=>倍数+ the … + of。例如:
This bridge is three times as long as that one. =This bridge is three times the length of that one.
9、比较级形容词或副词 + than,例如:They lights in your room are brighter than those in mine.你房间的那些灯比我房间里的亮。
注:①要避免重复使用比较级。②要避免将主语含在比较对象中。③要注意对应句型,遵循前后一致的原则。④要注意定冠词在比较级中的使用。例如:
China is larger than any country in Asia.(×)/China is larger than any other countries in Asia.(√)
Which is larger, Canada or Australia?/Which is the larger country, Canada or Australia?
10、可修饰比较级的词:①a bit, a little, rather, much, far, by far, many, a lot, lots, a great deal, any, still, even等。②还可以用表示倍数的词或度量名词作修饰语。③以上词(除by far)外,必须置于比较级形容词或副词的前面。
11、many, old 和 far
1)如果后接名词时,much more +不可数名词,many more +可数名词复数。
2) old有两种比较级和最高级形式:older/oldest 和elder/eldest。elder,eldest只用于兄弟姐妹的长幼关系。例如:
My elder brother is an engineer. 我哥哥是个工程师。
Mary is the eldest of the three sisters. 玛丽是三姐妹中最大的。
3) far有两种比较级,farther,further。一般father 表示距离,further表示进一步。例如:I have nothing further to say.
12、the+最高级+比较范围:
1)形容词最高级前通常必须用定冠词the,副词最高级前可不用。例如:The Sahara is the biggest desert in the world.
形容词most前面没有the,不表示最高级的含义,只表示"非常"。例如:
It is a most important problem. =It is a very important problem. 这是个很重要的问题。
注:使用最高级要注意将主语包括在比较范围内。
2)下列词可修饰最高级,by far, far, much, mostly, almost。例如:This hat is nearly / almost the biggest.
注:① very可修饰最高级,但位置与much不同。例如:This is the very best./This is much the best.
②序数词通常只修饰最高级。例如:Africa is the second largest continent.
3)最高级的意义有时可以用比较级表示出来。例如:
Mike is the most intelligent in his class. 马克是班上最聪明的。
Mike is more intelligent than any other students in his class.
4) "否定词语+比较级","否定词语+ so… as"结构也可以表示最高级含义。例如:Nothing is so easy as this. =Nothing is easier than this. =This is the easiest thing.
13、和more有关的词组:
1)the more…the more…越……就越……。例如:The harder you work,the greater progress you'll make. 越努力,进步越大。
2)more B than A=less A than B与其说A不如说B。例如:
He is more lazy than slow at his work. = He is less slow than lazy at his work. 他工作时,与其说是反应慢不如说是懒。
3) no more… than… 与……一样……,不比……多。例如:
The officials could see no more than the Emperor. 官员们看到的和皇帝一样多。
no less… than…与……一样……。例如:He is no less diligent than you. 他和你一样勤勉。
4) more than不只是,非常。例如:She is more than kind to us all. 她对我们非常热心。
例如:The weather in China is different from that in America.
After the new technique was introduced,the factory produced twice as many tractors in 1988 as the year before.
Chapter 11. 代词
一、概念:
代词是代替名词的词, 大多数代词具有名词和形容词的功能。按其意义、特征及其在句中的作用分为:人称代词、物主代词、指示代词、反身代词、相互代词、疑问代词、不定代词和关系代词等。
1、人称代词是表示"我"、"你"、"他"、"她"、"它"、"我们"、"你们"、"他们"的词。人称代词有人称、数和格的变化,见下表:
单数
复数
主格
宾格
主格
宾格
第一人称
I
me
we
us
第二人称
you
you
you
you
第三人称
he
him
they
them
she
her
they
them
it
it
they
them
2、物主代词是表示所有关系的代词,也可叫做代词所有格。物主代词分形容性物主代词和名词性物主代词两种,其人物和数的变化见下表。
单数
复数
人称
第一人称
第二人称
第三人称
第一人称
第二人称
第三人称
形容词性物主代词
my
your
his/her/its
our
your
their
名词性物主代词
mine
yours
his/hers/its
ours
yours
theirs
3、指示代词表示"那个"、"这个"、"这些"、"那些"等指示概念的代词。指示代词有this,that,these,those等。指示代词分单数(this / that)和复数(these / those)两种形式,既可作限定词又可做代词。例如:
单数
复数
限定词
This girl is Mary.
Those men are my teachers.
代词
This is Mary.
Those are my teachers.
4、表示"我自己"、"你自己"、"他自己"、"我们自己"、"你们自己"和"他们自己"等的代词,叫做自身代词,也称为"反身代词"。
单数
复数
人称
第一人称
第二人称
第三人称
第一人称
第二人称
第三人称
人称代词
I
you
he/she/it
we
you
they
反身代词
myself
yourself
yourself/herself/himself
ourselves
yourselves
themselves
另外:one的反身代词为oneself
5、表示相互关系的代词叫相互代词,表示句中动词所叙述的动作或感觉在涉及的各个对象之间是相互存在的。只有each other 和one another两组,但在运用中,这两组词没什么大的区别。例如:
It is easy to see that the people of different cultures have always copied each other. 显而易见,不同文化的人总是相互借鉴的。
6、非指明代替任何特定名词的代词叫做不定代词。常见的不定代词有all , both, every, each, either, neither, more, little, few, much, many, another, other, some, any , one, no 以及some, something, anything, everything, somebody, someone, anybody, anyone, nothing , nobody, no one, none, everybody, everyone等。这些不定代词大都可以代替名词和形容词,在句中作主语、宾语、表语和定语,但none和由some,any,no等构成的复合不定代词只能作主语、宾语或表语;every和no只能作定语。
7、疑问代词有who,whom,whose,what和which等。在句子中用来构成特殊疑问句。疑问代词都可用作连接代词,引导名词性从句(主语从句、宾语从句和表语从句)。
指人: who, whom, whose
指物: what
既可指人又可指物: which
8、关系代词有who,whom,whose,that,which,as等,可用作引导从句的关联词。它们在定语从句中可作主语、表语、宾语、定语等;另一方面它们又代表主句中为定语从句所修饰的那个名词或代词(先行词)。例如:
He is the man whom you have been looking for. 他就是你要找的那个人。
二、相关知识点精讲:
1、人称代词的用法
①人称代词的主格在句子中作主语或主语补语。例如:
John waited a while but eventually he went home. /John hoped the passenger would be Mary and indeed it was she.
注:在复合句中,如果主句和从句主语相同,代词主语要用在从句中,名词主语用在主句中。例如:
When he arrived, John went straight to the bank. 约翰一到就直接去银行了。
②人称代词的宾格在句子中作宾语或介词宾语,但在口语中也能作主语补语,第一人称在省略句中,还可以作主语。例如:
I saw her with them, at least, I thought it was her.
③人称代词还可作表语,作表语时用宾格。例如:---Whos is knocking at the door?---It’s me.
④人称代词在than之后与其他人或事物进行比较时,用主格和宾格都可以。如:He is older than me.=He is older than I am.
⑤人称代词有主格和宾格之分。通常主格作主语,宾格作宾语。
注:①在简短对话中,当人称代词单独使用或在not 后,多用宾语。②在表示比较的非正式的文体中,常用宾格代替主格。 但如果比较状语的谓语保留,则主语只能用主格。③在介词but,except 后,有时可用主格代替宾格。④在电话用语中常用主格。⑤在动词be 或to be 后的人称代词视其前面的名词或代词而定。
注:①不定代词 anybody,everybody,nobody,anyone,someone,everyone,no one,及whoever和person在正式场合使用时,可用he, his, him代替。②动物名词的指代一般用it或they代替,有时也用he, she,带有亲切的感情色彩。③指代车或国家,船舶的名词,含感情色彩时常用she。
注:并列人称代词的排列顺序
①单数人称代词并列作主语时,其顺序为:第二人称→第三人称→第一人称,即you→he/she; it→ I。
②复数人称代词作主语时,其顺序为:第一人称→第二人称→第三人称,即we→you→they。
注:在下列情况中,第一人称放在前面
①在承认错误,承担责任时:It was I and John that made her angry. 是我和约翰惹她生气了。
②在长辈对晚辈,长官对下属说话时,如长官为第一人称,如:I and you try to finish it. 我和你去弄好它。
③并列主语只有第一人称和第三人称时。
④当其他人称代词或名词被定语从句修饰时。
2、物主代词的用法
①物主代词既有表示所属的作用又有指代作用。例如:John had cut his finger; apparently there was a broken glass on his desk.
注:物主代词有形容词性(my, your等)和名词性(mine, yours等)两种,形容词性的物主代词属于限定词。名词性的物主代词在用法上相当于省略了中心名词的--'s属格结构。
②形容词性物主代词的作用相当于形容词,可在句中作定语。例如:Our teacher is coming to see us.
③名词性物主代词的作用相当于名词,在句中可用作主语、宾语和表语。例如:
May I use your pen? Yours works better.(作主语)
--- Is this English-book yours? (作表语)--- No. Mine is in my bag.(作主语)
I love my motherland as much as you love yours.(作宾语)
注:双重所有格
物主代词不可与 a, an, this, that, these, those, some, any, several, no, each, every, such, another, which等词一起前置,修饰一个名词,而必须用双重所有格。公式为:a, an, this, that +名词+of +名词性物主代词。例如:a friend of mine, each brother of his.
3、指示代词的用法
①作主语:this和these一般用来指在时间或空间上较近的事物或人,that和those则指时间和空间上较远的事物或人,例如:
This is a pen and that is a pencil./We are busy these days./ In those days the workers had a hard time.
注:①有时that和those指前面讲到过的事物,this 和these则是指下面将要讲到的事物,例如:
What I want to say is this:pronunciation is very important in learning English.
②有时为了避免重复提到的名词,常可用that或those代替,例如:
Television sets made in Beijing are just as good as those made in Shanghai.
③this 在电话用语中代表自己,that 则代表对方。例如:Hello! This is Mary. Is that Jack speaking?
②作宾语,例如:I like this better than that./ I don't say no to that.
③作表语,例如:My point is this.
注:That和those可作定语从句的先行词,但this和 these不能,同时,在作先行词时,只有those可指人。
4、反身代词的用法
①作宾语,表示动作的承受者就是动作的发出者,主语和宾语指同一个人或一些人。如absent, bathe, amuse, blame, dry, cut, enjoy, hurt, introduce, behave+oneself。例如:Please help yourself to some fish.
注:有些动词后不跟反身代词,如:get up, sit-down, stand up, wake up等。
②作表语,如结构be oneself。例如:It doesn't matter.I'll be myself soon.
③作主语或宾语的同位语,表示亲自或本人。例如:The thing itself is not important.
注:反身代词本身不能单独作主语,但在and, or, nor连接的并列主语中,第二个主语可用反身代词,特别是myself 作主语。例如:Myself drove the car.(×);Charles and myself saw it.(√);
5、不定代词的用法
①除every 和no外不定代词既可用作名词,也可用作形容词。every和no在句中只能作定语。例如:I have no idea about it.
②all都,指三者以上。all的主谓一致:all的单复数由它所修饰或指代的名词的单复数决定,All goes well.一切进展得很好。
注:①all通常不与可数名词单数连用,但all可与表时间的可数名词单数连用,如 all day,all night,all the year;但习惯上不说 all hour,all century。
②all还可以与一些特殊的单数名词连用。
现将几个常用的不定代词举例说明如下:
⑴some与any的区别
①some多用于肯定句,表示“一些,几个”作形容词时, 可与复数名词及不可数名词连用。当做"某一"解时,与单数名词连用。(= a certain),例如:A certain (some) person has seen you break the rule.
②any多用于疑问句、条件句和否定句中,表示“一些,任何”用作形容词时, 可与复数名词及不可数名词连用。当句中含有任何的意思时,any可用于肯定句。例如:If you have any questions, please ask me.
③any和some也可以作代词用,表示“一些”。any多用于疑问句或否定句中,some多用于肯定句中,在肯定疑问句中用some代替any。例如:If you have no money, I'll lend you some.
注:当否定的是整体中的部分时,some可用于否定句。例如:I haven't heard from some of my old friends these years.
注:与some, any结合的词如something, somebody, someone, anything, anyone, anybody在肯定句、否定句、疑问句、条件句中的用法,大致和some, any的用法相同。
⑵few, a few, little, a little在用法上的区别
①用作形容词:(a)few +可数名词, (a)little +不可数名词
含义
用法
表示肯定
表示否定
用于可数名词
a few虽少,但有几个
few不多,几乎没有
用于不可数名词
a little,虽少,但有一点
little不多,没有什么
②a little和little也可以用作副词,a little表示“有点,稍微”,little表示“很少”。例如:
Mary, go a little faster, please. (修饰副词比较级)/She slept very little last night.
⑶other, the other, another, others, the others
①other可以作形容词用,后面可以跟单数或复数名词,意思是“其他的、别的”。例如:I haven't any other books except this one.
②other也可以用作代词,与冠词the连用构成“the other”,表示两个人或物中的“另一个”。常与one搭配构成“one ..., the other ...”句型。例如:
He has two brothers. One is 10 years old , the other is 5 years old.
She held a ruler in one hand and an exercise-book in the other.
③other作代词用时,可以有复数“others”,泛指“另外的人或物”。常与some搭配构成“some ...., others ...”句型。
Some went to the cinema, others went swimming./This coat is too large. Show me some others, please.
④“the others”表示特指某范围内的“其他的人或物”。例如:We got home by 4 o'clock, but the others didn't get back until 8 o'clock.
⑤another可以作形容词用,修饰后面的名词,意为“另一个”,还可以跟代词one。例如:You can see another ship in the sea, can't you?
⑥another也可以作代词用,表示“另一个”。例如:I'm still hungry after I've had this cake. Please give me another.
⑷every与each的区别
each
1)可单独使用2)可做代名词、形容词3)着重“个别” 4)用于两者或两者以上中的每一个人或物
every
1)不可单独使用2)仅作形容词3)着重“全体”,毫无例外4)用于三者或三者以上每一个人或物5) 有反复重复的意思
例如:The teacher gave a toy to each child./ Each ball has a different colour.
当我们说each child, each student或each teacher时,我们想到的是一个人的情况。而当我们说every child和every student时,我们想到的是全体的情况,every的意思与all接近,表示他们都如此。
Every student loves the English teacher. = All students love the English teacher.
⑸all和both,neither和nor的用法
①all指三者以上或不可数的事物。谓语动词既可以用单数,也可以用作复数。在句中作主语、表语、宾语、同位语和定语。
②both都,指两者。both 与复数动词连用,但 both… and…可与单数名词连用。“of +代词(或名词)”连用时,名词需为复数。
③both,all 都可作同位语,其位置在行为动词前,be 动词之后。如果助动词或情态动词后面的实义动词省去,则位于助动词或情态动词之前。
④neither两者都不,neither作主语时,谓语动词用单数。作定语与单数名词连用,但neither… nor 用作并列连词,可与复数名词连用。其谓语采用就近原则。
注:neither 与nor 的比较
①如前句是否定式从句,则主句用neither,而不用 nor。例如:If you don't do it,neither should I.
②如后连续有几个否定句式,则用nor,不用neither。例如:He can't sing,nor dance,nor skate.
⑹one,ones,that 和it
①one表示泛指,that和it 表示特指。that与所指名词为同类,但不是同一个,而it 与所指名词为同一个。
②ones必须和形容词连用。如果替代的名词时无形容词在前,则用some, any,而不用ones。
⑺anyone与any one,no one与none
①anyone和any one:anyone仅指人,any one既可指人,也可指物。
②no one和none:none 后跟of短语,既可指人又可指物,而no one只单独使用,只指人。none作主语,谓语动词用单,复数均可,而no one作主语谓语动词只能是单数。
6、相互代词的用法
①作动词宾语,例如:People should love one another. 人们应当彼此相爱。
②作介词宾语,例如:Does bark, cocks crow, frogs croak to each other.吠、鸡鸣、蛙儿对唱。
注:传统语法认为,相互关系存在于两个人或物之间用each other, 存在于两个以上人和物之间用one another。现代英语中,两组词交替使用的实例也很多。例如:
Usually these small groups were independent of each other. 这些小团体通常是相互独立的。
③作定语用时,相互代词用所有格形式,例如:The students corrected each other's / one another's mistakes in their homework.
7、疑问代词的用法
①疑问代词用于特殊疑问句中,一般都放在句首,并在句子中作为某一句子成分。例如:Who is going to come here tomorrow?
②疑问代词在句中应位于谓语动词之前,没有性和数的变化,除who之外也没有格的变化。what, which, whose还可作限定词。例如:
疑问代词:What was the directional flow of U. S. territorial expansion? 美国的领土扩张是朝哪个方向的?
限定词:What events led to most of the east of the Mississippi River becoming part of the United States? 哪些事件使密西西比河以东的大部分土地归属于美国?
注:①无论是做疑问代词还是限定词,which 和 what 所指的范围不同。what所指的范围是无限的,而which则指在一定的范围内。例如:Which girls do you like best?你喜欢哪几个姑娘?What girls do you like best?你喜欢什么样的姑娘?
②Whom是who的宾格,在书面语中,它作动词宾语或介词宾语,在口语中作宾语时,可用who代替,但在介词后只能用whom。
③疑问代词用于对介词宾语提问时,过去的文体中介词和疑问代词通常一起放在句首,现代英语中,疑问代词在句首,介词在句末。例如:For what do most people live and work?(旧文体)What are you looking for?(现代英语)
④疑问代词还可引导名词性从句。例如:I can't make out what he is driving at. 我不知道他用意何在。
8、关系代词的用法
①关系代词用来引导定语从句。它代表先行词,同时在从句中作一定的句子成分,在句中可用作主语,表语,宾语,定语。在主句中,它们还代表着从句所修饰的那个名词或代词。例如:
The girl to whom I spoke is my cousin. 跟我讲话的姑娘是我表妹。
该句中whom既代表先行词the girl,又在从句中作介词to的宾语。
②关系代词有主格,宾格和属格之分,并有指人与指物之分。在限定性定语从句中,that 可指人也可指物,见表:
指人
指物
指人或指物
主 格
who
which
that
宾 格
whom
that
that
属 格
whose
of which/whose
of which/whose
例如:This is the pencil whose point is broken. 这就是那枝折了尖的铅笔。(whose 指物,在限定性定语从句中作定语)
He came back for the book which he had forgotten.他回来取他丢下的书。(which指物,在限定性定语从句中作宾语,可以省略)
注:非限定性定语从句中,不能用that作关系代词。
③关系代词which的先行词可以是一个句子,例如:He said he saw me there, which was a lie.
注:关系代词在从句中作宾语时可以省略。另外,关系代词that在从句中作表语时也可省略,例如
I've forgotten much of the Latin I once knew.  我过去懂拉丁语,现在大都忘了。
He's changed. He's not the man he was. 他变化很大,已不是过去的他了。
Chapter .12名词
一、概念:
名词是表示人,事物,地点或抽象概念的名称的词,有专有名词和普通名词之分,还有可数名词与不可数名词之分。专有名词是某个(些)人,地方,机构等专有的名称,如Beijing,China等。普通名词是一类人或东西或是一个抽象概念的名词,如:book,sadness等。普通名词又可分为下面四类:
1)个体名词:表示某类人或东西中的个体,如:gun。
2)集体名词:表示若干个个体组成的集合体,如:family。
3)物质名词:表示无法分为个体的实物,如:air。
4)抽象名词:表示动作、状态、品质、感情等抽象概念,如:work。
个体名词和集体名词可以用数目来计算,称为可数名词,物质名词和抽象名词一般无法用数目计算,称为不可数名词。归纳一下,名词的分类可以下图表示:
名词
专有名词
不可数名词
普通名词
物质名词
抽象名词
集体名词
可数名词
个体名词
二、相关知识点精讲:
1、名词复数的规则变化
构成方法
读音
例词
一般情况
加 -s
清辅音后读/s/
map-maps
浊辅音和元音后读 /z/
bag-bags /car-cars
以s, sh, ch, x等结尾
加 -es
读 /iz/
bus-buses/ watch-watches
以ce, se, ze,等结尾
加 -s
读 /iz/
license-licenses
以辅音字母+y结尾
变y 为i再加es
读 /z/
baby---babies
2、其它名词复数的规则变化
构成方法
例词
以y结尾的专有名词,或元音字母+y 结尾的名词
直接加s变复数
The Henrys,monkeys,holidays
以o 结尾的名词
加s
Photos,pianos,radios,zoos
加es
Potatoes,tomatoes
加s加es均可
zero---zeros / zeroes
以f或fe 结尾的名词
加s
Beliefs,roofs,safes,gulfs
去f,fe 加ves
Halves,knives,leaves,wolves,wives,thieves
均可
handkerchief: handkerchiefs / handkerchieves
3、名词复数的不规则变化
1) child---children;foot---feet;tooth---teeth;mouse---mice;man---men;woman---women
注:由一个词加 man 或 woman构成的合成词,其复数形式也是 -men 和-women,如an Englishman,two Englishmen。但German不是合成词,故复数形式为Germans;Bowman是姓,其复数是the Bowmans。
2)单复同形,如deer,sheep,fish,Chinese,Japanese ,li,jin,yuan,two li,three mu,four jin等。但除人民币的元、角、分外,美元、英镑、法郎等都有复数形式。如:a dollar, two dollars; a meter, two meters。
3)集体名词,以单数形式出现,但实为复数。例如:people,police,cattle等本身就是复数,不能说a people,a police,a cattle,但可以说a person,a policeman,a head of cattle。 the English,the British,the French,the Chinese,the Japanese,the Swiss等名词,表示国民总称时,作复数用。例如:The Chinese are industries and brave.中国人民是勤劳勇敢的。
4)以s结尾,仍为单数的名词,如:① maths,politics,physics等学科名词,一般是不可数名词,为单数。②news 为不可数名词。③the United States,the United Nations 应视为单数。④以复数形式出现的书名,剧名,报纸,杂志名,也可视为单数。
例如:The United Nations was organized in 1945. 联合国是1945年组建起来的。
"The Arabian Nights" is a very interesting story-book. 《一千零一夜》是一本非常有趣的故事书。
5)表示由两部分构成的东西,如:glasses(眼镜),trousers, clothes等,若表达具体数目,要借助数量词。如:pair(对,双); suit(套);
6)一些名词,其复数形式有时可表示特别意思,如:goods货物,waters水域,fishes(各种)鱼。
4、不可数名词量的表示
物质名词
①当物质名词转化为个体名词时为可数
Cake is a kind of food.(不可数);These cakes are sweet.(可数)
②当物质名词表示该物质的种类时,可数。
This factory produces steel.(不可数)
We need various steels.(可数)
③当物质名词表示份数时,可数。
Two teas, please.请来两杯茶。
抽象名词表示具体的事例时也可数。
four freedoms 四大自由,the four modernizations四个现代化
物质名词和抽象名词可以借助单位词表一定的数量,如a glass of water 一杯水/ a piece of advice 一则建议。
5、定语名词的复数
名词作定语一般用单数,但也有以下例外。
1)用复数作定语。例如:sports meeting运动会;students reading-room学生阅览室;talks table谈判桌;the foreign languages department外语系。
2) man, woman, gentleman等作定语时,其单复数以所修饰的名词的单复数而定。例如:men workers;women teachers;gentlemen officials。
3)有些原有s结尾的名词,作定语时,s保留。例如:goods train(货车),arms produce武器生产,customs papers海关文件,clothes brush衣刷。
4)数词+名词作定语时,这个名词一般保留单数形式。例如:two-dozen eggs两打鸡蛋,a ten-mile walk十英里路,two-hundred trees 两百棵树,a five-year plan一个五年计划。
6、不同国籍人的单复数
国籍
总称
单数
复数
国籍
总称
单数
复数
中国人
the Chinese
a Chinese
two Chinese
日本人
the Japanese
a Japanese
two Japanese
瑞士人
the Swiss
a Swiss
two Swiss
德国人
the Germans
a German
two Germans
澳大利亚人
theAustralians
an Australian
twoAustralians
美国人
the Americans
an American
two Americans
俄国人
the Russians
a Russian
two Russians
英国人
the English
anEnglishman
twoEnglishmen
意大利人
the Italians
an Italian
two Italians
加拿大人
the Canadians
a Canadian
two Canadians
希腊人
the Greek
a Greek
two Greeks
瑞典人
the Swedish
a Swede
two Swedes
法国人
the French
a Frenchman
twoFrenchmen
印度人
the Indians
an Indian
two Indians
7、名词的格
英语中有些名词可以加"'s"来表示所有关系,带这种词尾的名词形式称为该名词的所有格,名词所有格的规则如下:
1)单数名词词尾加"'s",复数名词词尾没有s,也要加"'s",如the boy's bag,men's room。
2若名词已有复数词尾-s ,只加" ' ",如:the workers' struggle。
3)凡不能加"'s"的名词,都可以用"名词+of +名词"的结构来表示所有关系,如:the title of the song。
4)在表示店铺或教堂的名字或某人的家时,名词所有格的后面常常不出现它所修饰的名词,如:the barber's。
5)如果两个名词并列,并且分别有's,则表示"分别有";只有一个's,则表示'共有'。例如:John's and Mary's rooms(两间),John and Mary's room(一间)
6)复合名词或短语,'s 加在最后一个词的词尾。例如:a month or two's absence。
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