一、名词的复数
1. 名词变复数的规则形式
1)一般情况下直接加s book------books cup-----cups
2)以辅音字母+y结尾的，先变y为i再加es city-----cities family-----families
3)以元音字母+y 结尾的名词，直接加s key-----keys，toy-----toys
4)以s、x、sh、ch结尾的加es bus-----buses wish------wishes watch-----watches
5)以o 结尾的名词，变复数时，大部分情况下加-es hero-----heroes potato------potatoes tomato-----tomatoes
但下面这几类词只加-s
a. 以“元音+o”或“oo”结尾的词，如：radio-----radios kangaroo-----kangaroos
b. 一些外来词，特别是音乐方面的词，如：piano-----pianos solo-----solos tobacco-----tobaccos
c. 一些缩写词和专有名词，如：kilo(kilogram/kilometer)-----kilos photo(photograph)-----photos Eskimo-----Eskimos
d. 个别词加-es，-s都可以，如：halo-----halos/haloes
6)以f、fe 结尾的，先把f、fe变v 再加es .
leaf----leaves self---selves shelf----shelves life----lives thief---thieves
2. 少数名词的复数形式是不规则的
man----men woman---women child----children
foot-----feet tooth----teeth mouse---mice
3. 单数和复数形式相同
deer---deer fish----fish sheep----sheep Chinese ----Chinese Japanese---Japanese
means(手段，方法）----means species（物种）----species
4. 某国人的复数
1)中、日不变 Chinese----Chinese Japanese---Japanese
2)英、法变 Englishman----Englishmen Frenchman----Frenchmen
3)其余s加后面 American -----Americans German----Germans Australian---Australians
二、不可数名词
1. 不可数名词的特点
1)不能直接用数字表数量
2)不能直接加a或an
3)没有复数形式
4)可用some、any 、lots of、plenty of 、much 修饰
5)可用“量词短语”表示
2. 不可数名词的数量的表示方法
a / 数字+ 量词 + of + 不可数名词，如a piece of paper a cup of tea a glass of milk
三、名词的所有格
1. ’s 所有格
1)用and连接两个并列的单数名词表示共有关系时，这时只在最后一个名词后加“’s.”
Tom and Jerry's room Tom和Jerry共有的房间
2)用and连接两个并列的单数名词表示各有关系时，这时分别在每个名词后加“’s.”
Tom's and Jerry's rooms Tom和Jerry各自的房间（分别拥有一个房间）
3)以s结尾的名词，变所有格时在s后加’,不以s 结尾的复数名词，仍加’s Teachers’ Day 教师节 Children’s Day 儿童节
4)表示店铺/医院/诊所/住宅等名称时，常在名词后加 ’s 代表全称
at the doctor’s at the Bob’s
5)由some、any、no、every与one、body 结合的复合不定代词something 、anything 等和else 连用时，所有格应加在else的后面。
This is somebody else’s pencil . 这是别人的铅笔
6)表示时间、距离、国家、城市等无生命的名词，也可在词尾加’s 来构成所有格。 an hour’s ride two weeks’ time China’s capital
2. of 所有格
of 用来表示无生命的名词所有格。the map of China中国地图 the door of the room 房门
3. 双重所有格—— “of + 名词所有格”或“of + 名词性的物主代词 ”
He is a friend of my brother’s. 他是我兄弟的一个朋友。
Is she a daughter of yours? 她是你的女儿吗？
四、名词作句子成分
1.名词作主语
1)表示时间、金钱、距离作主语时，谓语动词用单数。
Two hours is enough for us to get there. 两个小时就够我们去那里了。
2)量词短语“数字+量词+ of +…”作主语时，谓语动词应与量词保持一致。
A pair of shoes is under the bed.
Two pieces of paper are on the desk .
3)名词+介词（with、except 、along with …….）+名词作主语时，谓语动词应与前面的名词保持一致。
The teacher along with the students is planting trees on the hill.
4)短语“neither…nor…, either…or…, not only…but also 连接主语时，谓语动词实行就近原则。
Neither he nor I am a Frenchman.
2.名词作定语
1)名词作定语时，一般用单数形式。 There is a shoe factory near the school .
2)名词作定语时，个别情况用复数形式。The sports meeting will be held next week .
3)man、woman 作定语表示性别时，man、woman随后面的名词单复数而变。
one man teacher two women teachers
考点二 冠词的用法
一、a和an的区别
不定冠词有a和an两种形式，a用于辅音(不是辅音字母)开头的词前，an用于元音(不是元音字母)开头的词前（即：不看字母看读音），如：
a boy, a university, a European country, a useful book
an hour, an honor, an island, an elephant, an umbrella, an honest man
二、不定冠词的用法
1.泛指某一类人、事或物，这是不定冠词a/an的基本用法。A horse is an animal.
2.泛指某人或某物，但不具体说明何人或何物。A girl is waiting for you.
3.表示数量，有“一”的意思，但数的概念没有one强烈。I have a computer.
4.表示“每一”，相当于every. I go to school five days a week.我一周上五天课。
5.用在序数词前，表示“又一”，“再一”。 I have three books. I want to buy a fourth one.
6.用在某些固定词组中：
a lot(of), after a while ,a few ,a little ,at a time ,have a swim ,have a cold ,in a hurry ,for a long time, have a good time ,have a look等
三、定冠词的用法
1.特指某(些)人或某(些)物，这是定冠词的基本用法。The book on the desk is mine
2.指谈话双方都知道的人或事物。Open the window, please.
3.指上文已经提到的人或事物。I have a car. The car is red.
4.指世界上独一无二的事物。Which is bigger, the sun or the earth?
5.用在序数词、形容词最高级前。The first lesson is the easiest one in this book.
6.用在由普通名词构成的专有名词前。the Great Wall 长城，the United States 美国
7.用在某些形容词前，表示某一类人。the poor穷人, the blind盲人
8.用在姓氏复数形式前，表示“全家人”或“夫妻俩”。 the Greens 格林一家或格林夫妻俩
9.用在方位词前。on the left在左边，in the middle of在中间
10.用在乐器名称前。She plays the piano every day.
11.用在表示海洋，河流，山脉，群岛及国家和党派等名词前。 the Black Sea黑海，the Yangzi River长江
12.用在某些固定词组中：
all the same仍然；all the time一直；at the moment此刻；at the same time同时；by the way顺便说；in the morning/afternoon/evening 在上午/下午/晚上；in the open air 在户外，在野外 etc.
四、零冠词的用法
1.棋类/球类/一日三餐名词前不用任何冠词 Play chess play football have supper
【例外】当football，basketball指具体的某个球时，其前可以用冠词：I can see a football.我可以看到一只足球。Where’s the football？那只足球在哪儿？(指足球，并非“球类运动”)
2.季节/月份/星期/节假日名词前不用任何冠词
In July, in summer, on Monday, on Teachers’ Day
3.人名/地名/国家名前不加冠词 Beijing is the capital of China
4.学科/语言/称呼/职务名词前不用冠词Math is hard to learn.
5.复数名词表示类别时不加冠词 They are workers
6.名词前已有物主代词(my，your，his，her等)、指示代词(this/these，that/those)、不定代词(some，any等)及所有格限制时,不用冠词 my book(正)；my the book(误)
7.在表特定的公园，街道，车站，桥，学校等之前。No.6 Middle School 第六中学
五、用与不用冠词的差异
in hospital住院 in the hospital在医院里
in front of在(外部的)前面 in the front of在(内部的)前面
at table进餐 at the table在桌子旁
by sea乘船 by the sea在海边
go to school(church)上学(做礼拜) go to the school(church)到学校(教堂)去
two of us我们当中的两人 the two of us我们两人(共计两人)
next year明年 the next year 第二年
a teacher and writer一位教师兼作家(一个人)
a teacher and a writer一位教师和一位作家(两个人)
考点三 代词的用法
一、人称代词
1.主格作主语，宾格作动词或介词的宾语. He teaches us Chinese .
2.三种人称代词并列时，顺序为:
◆ 单数：二三一 （You, she and I ）
◆ 复数：一二三 (we , you and they )
3.it 的一些特别用法
①用作形式主语，常用于 It’s +adj +to do sth句型中
②用在句型 It seems that …中
③用在句型It’s one’s turn to do sth中
④用在句型 It’s time to do sth / for sth中
⑤用在句型It’s +adj +that 从句中
⑥用作形式宾语, 用来代替动词不定式 make /think /feel/find + it + adj./n. + to do sth
二、物主代词
1.形容词性物主代词作定语放在名词前，不能单独使用。
2.名词性物主代词，后面不能加名词。名词性物主代词常与of 连用。
Our classroom is as big as theirs .
This is a friend of mine.
【注】①名词性物主代词相当于形容词性物主代词加一个名词（名词性物主代词=形容词性物主代词+ 名词） ②形容词性物主代词与own 连用时，后面可跟名词也可不跟名词
my own house = a house of my own
三、反身代词
反身代词的常用搭配：
enjoy oneself
hurt oneself
teach oneself = learn…by oneself
all by oneself
help oneself to …
look after oneself
leave sb by oneself
lose oneself in
say to oneself
for oneself
dress oneself
improve oneself
四、指示代词
1.近指: this these 远指: that those
2.用法:
①that those 常用来代替前面出现的人或物，以避免重复。that代替可数名词的单数或不可数名词，those 代替复数名词。
The weather in Guangdong is hotter than that in Qinghai .
The books in this shop are cheaper than those in that shop.
②this ,that 可代替句子或句子的一个部分：that代替前面提到的句子，this代替下面提到的句子。
He had a bad cold, that is why he didn’t come.
I shall say this to you: he is an honest man.
③在电话用语中this 代替自己，而that 代替对方。
This is Tom speaking. Who is that ?
五、不定代词的区别
1.one与it 的区别
one 代替同类事物中的一种,而it代替上文中出现的某事物。
I left my book in my drawer, but today it is gone.
I don’t like this type of CD player. Could you show me a better one?
2.some与any 的区别
一般情况下，some用于肯定句，any用于否定、疑问句、条件句中，但在表建议的疑问句中，仍用some 代any，常用于could/would /May 开头或what about/how about …. 的句中。
May I have some water ?
He asked me for some paper , but I didn’t have any .
any用于肯定句中，常意为“任何” Any colour will do. 任何颜色都行。
3.many与much的区别
many+可数名词的复数，much+不可数名词，都相当于 a lot of +复数名词/不可数名词
【注意】a lot of 不能用于否定句中
4.each与 every 的区别
each 表示两者或两者以上的人或物中的每一个，而every 表示三者或三者以上的人或物中的每一个。
There are trees and flowers on each side of the street.
【注意】each 可以与of 连用，each of 作主语时，谓语动词用单数；而every 不能与of 连用，只能放在名词前作定语。
Each of us is studying hard.
5.no one，nothing与none 的区别
◆ none可指人也可以指物，可与of连用；none用作主语时，若指不可数名词，谓语用单数，若指可数名词，则谓语可用单数(较正式)也可用复数(用于非正式文体，但更符合惯用法)；
侧重指数量上“一个也没有”，一般用来 回答how many/much +n, 及含any+n 引起的疑问句，如：
None of us have/has seen him.
-How many cats are there in the room?
-None.
-How much money do you have on you?
-None.
-Is there any water in the thermos?
-None.
◆ no one通常用来指人，不与of连用；no one用作主语时，谓语动词用单数；一般用来回答who, 及含anyone、anybody引起的疑问句，如：
No one likes a person with bad manners. 没人喜欢没有礼貌的人。
-Who is in the room?
-No one.
-Is there anyone in the room?
-No one.
◆ nothing 通常用来指物。Nothing用作主语时，谓语动词用单数；一般用来回答what引起的特殊问句及含anything的一般问句，如：
-What is in the box?
-Nothing.
-Is there anything in the sky?
-Nothing.
6.both /neither /either /all / none / any 的区别
①both 的否定词是neither , all的否定词是none.
②both of 作主语时，谓语动词用复数；neither of作主语时, 谓语动词用单数。
Neither of the answers is right.
Both of my parents are workers.
③词组both …and …连接两个主语时，谓语动词用复数。同义词组:not only …but also … 反义词组: neither … nor …
Not only you but also she likes watching TV.= Both you and she like watching TV.
④词组either …or … 或者……或者…… , neither…nor… 既不……也不…… 连接两个主语时，谓语动词实行就近原则。
Neither you nor he is right .
One of Lily and Lucy is going to the park. = Either Lily or Lucy is going to the park.
⑤either也可以作副词，用于否定句中，表示“也（不）” neither通常用在句子（或简略答语）的开头，表示“也不”,其后要用倒装语序（将主语放在助动词、情态动词、系动词be之后）
If she won't go, neither shall I. (＝If she won't go, I won't either．)
7.other /the other /others /the others 的区别
①one …the other … 表示两者之间的一个……另一个……
②some… others… 表示一些…… 一些……
③some...the others特指某个范围内一些人..., 剩下的人...
④another 表示三者以上的不确定数目中的另一个，只能修饰可数名词的单数。但 another +数字+ 复数名词= 数字+ more +复数名词，表示“另外几个……”
Would you like another apple ?
I have two brothers. One is a teacher , the other is a worker .
Some are cleaning the classroom , and others are sweeping the window .
There are 20 teachers in our school . Eight of them are men teachers, and the others are women teachers.
8.复合不定代词
①复合不定代词作主语时，谓语动词用单数。 Everything begins to grow in spring.
②形容词修饰不定代词时, 形容词放在不定代词之后。Is there something interesting in today’s newspaper?
③动词不定式修饰不定代词时, 动词不定式放在不定代词之后。I want something to eat.
④any ,anything ,anyone, anybody 也可用于肯定句中，表示任何……/任何物/任何人
He could mimic anybody 他可以模仿任何人。
考点四 数词的用法
基数词：表示人或事物数量多少的词
序数词：表示人或事物顺序的词
一、基数词
1.基数词是表示数目的词，一般可写为 245 或者 two hundred and forty-five
2.基数词一般是单数形式，但遇下列情况，常用复数：
①与of连用，表示概数
a hundred people 100个人
hundreds of people 好几百人
②在一些习惯用法/固定搭配中
The students arrived in twos and threes. 学生们三三两两的到了。
③in one's + 整十的基数词复数形式，表示在某人...多岁时
in one's 40s 在某人四十岁的时候
④表示“年代”
in the 1930s 在20世纪三十年代...
⑤名词(首字母要大写) + 基数词 = the +序数词 +名词
Lesson One = the first lesson
注：有些编号，一般仅用第一种表达法。 Room 101 101号房间
⑥数词前加every ,表示每……/每隔……
every ten days = every ninth day 每十天(每隔九天)
注：every +基数词 +复数名词 = every + (序数词-1) +单数名词
二、序数词
1.基数词变序数词
【口诀】基变序，有规律，词尾要加th。
一二三，特殊记，词尾分别tdd(first second third )
八去t ,九去e，ve要用f替。
ty变作tie，再加th莫忘记。
若遇几十几，只变个位就可以。
2.序数词前一般加定冠词the，但序数词前与不定冠词a /an 连用时，表示 “又一，再一”。
You’ve done it three times .Why not try a fourth time ?
3.当序数词前有人称代词时, 用零冠词
That reminds me of my first dog.
三、分数
1.结构： a)分子用基数词，分母用序数词
b)当分子大于1时，分母加复数词尾 3/4--- three fourths
2.分数词的几种特殊形式：
1/2—a half/one half
1/3—one third = a third
1/4—one fourth = a quarter
3/4—three fourths = three quarters
3.分数词作主语时, 谓语动词的单复数形式根据分数词后面的名词来确定。
Two fifths of the milk has been drunk by Tom.
One third of the students are girls.
四、倍数
倍数的四种表达方法：
1.倍数/分数 + as + adj. +as
2.倍数/分数 + the size(weight, amount...) + of
3.倍数/分数 + adj.比较级 + than
4. by + 倍数
考点五 介词的用法
一、介词at/ in /on
1.表示时间：
1)at表示某一具体时间点，某一时刻/ 年龄
at six o’clock at noon at that time at the moment at the age of... at night
2) in表示时间段, 一天的三个时间段以及月份/年/季节/世纪/人生的某个时期(某人几十岁时)
in the morning/afternoon/evening in spring in 2007 in March in the 21st century in his fifties
3)on表示星期几/某一具体的日子/具体某天的上午/下午/晚上，表示一天中的三个时间段名词前有修饰语或后有修饰语时
On Monday on New Year’s Day on Sunday morning on a rainy night on the evening of April 1st ,2007
2.表示地点：
1)at 一般指较小的地点或较具体的位置at the station at the cinema
2)in 表示在较大的地点或一个有限空间里 in China in the classroom
3)on 指在某物体的表面上 on the desk
二、介词in /on / to 表方位
1.in表示A地在B地范围之内(包含关系) Tanwan is in the southeast of China.
2.on表示A,B地接壤(外切关系) Hubei is on the north of Hunan.
3.to表示A,B两地有一定的间距(外离关系) Japan is to the east of China.
三、between / among 在……之间
1.between指两者之间，“在…….之间”
2.among用于三者或三者以上人或物之间，“在……之中”
You sit between him and me.
The song is popular among the students.
四、after / in 在……之后
1. after
1)after+时间段，表示从过去的某个时间点算起一段时间后，与过去时连用
He came back home after three years. 他三年后回到家里。
2)after+未来时间点，表示在未来的某个时间点后，与将来时连用
I'll ring you up after two o'clock.两点以后我给你打电话。
3)after 作介词，after doing sth
2.in+一段时间，表示说话时或以现在为起点的将来一段时间之后，用于将来时
He came back after two days.
He will go home after finishing his homework
He will come back in two days.
五、with / in / by 表示 “用……”
1.with 表示 “用…” 一般指有形的工具 / 手段 / 人体器官
He cut the apple into halves with a knife.
注：with 还可以表伴随，表示“带有，含有” He came in with a big smile on his face .
2.in表示用某种语言，方式，途径，或书写/绘画所用的材料，也可表交通方式
Can you say it in English ?
He wrote a letter in blue ink.
3.by表示乘坐交通工具，表示方式，方法
I study for a test by working with a group .
He makes a living by selling newspapers.
She usually goes to work by bike.
六、across / through / over / by 经过
1.across 指横穿，穿过，表示动作从某一物体表面上经过
2.through 指穿过，透过，表示从某一物体空间内通过
3.over 表示从某人或某物的上空经过或越过，不与表面接触
4.by 表示从某人/某物的旁边经过
Can you swim across the river ?
The elephant is so big that it can’t go through the gate .
I don’t think anyone can jump over the fence.
I walked by the Bank of China yesterday.
七、in front of / in the front of “在……前面”
1.in the front of 表示在…….内部的前面
2.in front of 表示在……外部的前面
There is a desk in the front of our classroom.
There is a big tree in front of our classroom.
八、其它介词的用法
1.at的其它用法
1)表示”从事或正在做某事”,其后加的名词往往不加冠词.
She is at work now = She is working now .
2)at表示”处于……价格/速度”
The train ran at 120 kilometres an hour.
2.in的其它用法
1)in表示”在……方面”，词组：do well in = be good at be weak in
2)in 表示“穿着”，后接表颜色的词或衣服 词组: be in +衣服 = be wearing +衣服
3.like 的用法：
1)像/和……一样，常与系动词连用 词组: look like sound like
2)与what 连用，“是什么样子，怎样” What is he like ? He is kind .
4.off的用法：
1)从……下来， 脱离某物体 词组: fall off
2)“休假”，通常放在时间名词之后 词组：have +时间+ off It's marvellous to have a day off.
5.except / besides的用法：
1)except 表示“除了…….之外，都……”, 不包括在范围之内
2)besides表示“除了……之外，还有…… ”，包括在范围之内
We all went swimming except Lucy. 除了露西，我们都去游泳了。
We study Japanese and French besides English. 除英语外，我们还学习日语和法语。
6.with / without 的用法：
1)with具有，含有 -----反义词: without 没有
词组：with the help of = with one’s help =because of = thanks to
without one’s help
2)without 的用法
①without + sb./ sth. 没有某人或某物
②without + doing sth. He left here without saying Goodbye to us
③without sth 常用于if 引导的否定的条件句.
If there is no water , we can’t live .= We can’t live without water.
7.since / for的用法：
①since : a).since +时间点 b). 现在完成时+ since +一般过去时 c).since +一段时间+ ago.
②for: for +一段时间= since +一段时间+ ago
8.be made +介词的区别：
be made of 由…制成 (看得见原材料)
be made from由…制成 (看不见原材料)
be made in +地点 由哪儿生产
be made by sb. 由某人制造
9.表示 “数量的介词” about , round，around，over
①about，round around表示“大约……”
②over 表示“超过”= more than
10. inside / outside的用法
inside 在……里面 ------反义词：outside在….外面
九、不用介词的情况
1)当时间状为: tonight, today, yesterday, tomorrow 等时，不用介词What are you going to do tonight ?
2)含有this, that, these, those, last, next, every, each等时间状语时，不用介词
He went to Wuhan last week .
3)以all 开头的时间状语前面不用介词. He has worked all day .
4)以some ,any, one 等构成的时间状语前不用介词.
He met a bad man one cold morning .= He met a bad man on a cold morning .
考点六 连词的用法
一、并列连词
并列连词用来连接平行的词、词组或从句。常见的连词有：
and ,but ,or ,so ,both…and , either…or ,neither…nor , not only… but also 等。
1.and
①and 表示 “和、且”，在肯定句中连接并列的成分。 He is laughing and talking .
②祈使句+ and …… , 表示“那么”之意。= If……
Study hard , and you will succeed. = If you study hard , you will succeed.
2.but 表示转折关系的连词，意为“但是” He is poor, but honest .
3.or
①or 有 “或”的意思，表示一种选择 Would you like tea or water ?
②祈使句 + or … 表示“否则”之意。= If …not …, ……. .
Study hard , or you will fail. =If you don’t study hard , you will fail .
③or 用在否定句中表示并列关系。 He can’t read or write .
4.both
①both表示“两者都……”，后面的名词、动词都用复数。
Both the answers are right .
②both of ….
Both of us are students . 我们两个都是学生。
③both …and…
Both you and she are right. 你和她都是对的。
5.either/ either …or
①either 表示“两者当中任何一个”，后有of 时接名词的复数形式，无of时接单数名词，动词用单数形式。
You may wear either of the hats.
②either …or… “不是……就是……, 或者……或者……”，动词与临近的主语保持一致。即 “就近原则”。
Either you or he has to go = Either he or you have to go .
6.neither /neither …nor…
①neither 表示“两者都不”，后有of 时接名词的复数形式，无of时接单数名词，动词用单数形式。 Neither of the answers is right .
②neither….nor…表示“既不…….也不……”，动词与临近的主语保持一致，即 “就近原则
Neither you nor I am right .= Neither I nor you are right .
二、从属连词
从属连词是引导从句的连词。
1.引导宾语从句的连词
①that 连接由陈述句转变而来的宾语从句。
②who,whom,what,which,whose,when,where,why,how连接由特殊疑问句转变而来的宾语从句。
③if/ whether 连接由一般疑问句转变而来的宾语从句。
2.引导状语从句的连词
· 引导时间状语从句的after, before, when, while, as, until, till, since, as soon as等。
· 引导原因状语从句的because, as, since等。
· 引导条件状语从句的if, unless等。
· 引导地点状语从句的where, wherever, everywhere, anywhere等。
· 引导目的状语从句的so that, in order that等。
· 引导结果状语从句的so that, so…that, such…that等。
· 引导让步状语从句的though, although, even if等。
· 引导比较状语从句的than, as…as等。
· 引导方式状语从句的as, as if/though等。
· 引导名词性从句的that, if , whether等。
3.不能同时出现在一个句子中的连词。
①because ,so 不能同时出现在一个句子里，只用其中之一。
②though /although ,but不能同时出现在一个句子里，只用其中之一。但though 可以与yet，still 同时出现在一个句子中。
考点七 形容词的用法
一、以-ly结尾的形容词
1.大部分形容词加-ly可构成副词。但 friendly，deadly，lovely，lonely，likely，lively，ugly，brotherly，仍为形容词。
2.有些以-ly 结尾既为形容词，也为副词。 daily，weekly，monthly，yearly，early
The Times is a daily paper. The Times is published daily.
二、用形容词表示类别和整体
1.某些形容词加上定冠词可泛指一类人，谓语用复数。如：the dead，the living，the rich，the poor，the blind，the hungry。———— The poor are losing hope.
2.有关国家和民族的形容词加上定冠词指这个民族的整体，与动词复数连用。the British，the English，the French，the Chinese. ————The English have wonderful sense of humor.
三、多个形容词修饰名词的顺序
多个形容词修饰名词时，顺序：限定词--数词--描绘词--(大小，长短，形状，新旧，颜色) --出处--材料性质，类别）
a small round table
a dirty old brown shirt
an expensive Japanese sports car
四、形容词变副词方式
1.在形容词词尾直接加-ly，构成副词。如： usual-usually, bad-badly等。
[注]：不是所有以-ly结尾的单词都是副词，某些名词后加-ly可以转化为形容词。
如：sisterly, brotherly, friendly, comradely, lovely等。
2.以“辅音 字母+ y”结尾的单词，变y为i，再加-ly，如：heavy-heavily, happy-happily等 ，并且要注意这些单词的变化：polite-politely, true-truly, terrible-terribly等。
五、形容词的同级比较
① as + 原级adj. + as 和……一样
Tom is as tall as his brother. 汤姆和他哥哥一样高。
② not as/so + 原级adj. + as 不如……
My English is not as/so good as his. 我的英语不如他的好。
六、形容词的比较级
① 比较级+than... 比……更
This road is wider than that one. 这条路比那条路宽。
This computer is less expensive than mine. 这台电脑比我的便宜。
② the + 比较级，the + 比较级 越……，就越……
The higher the ground is, the thinner the air becomes. 海拔越高，空气就越稀薄。
③ 比较级+and +比较级 越来越……
Our country is getting stronger and stronger. 我们的国家越来越强大了。
【注意】
①避免双重比较。在比较级前不能再加more，加more就属于双重比较。
This road is more wider than that one. (×)
This road is wider than that one. (√)
②相比较的前后两部分必须是同类比较
My pencil is longer than you. (×)
My pencil is longer than yours. (√)
③比较要符合逻辑，要避免与自身相比
Tom is taller than any boy in his class. (×)
Tom is taller than any other boy(或all the other boys/anybody else/any of the other boys )in his class. (√)
在比较中，要注意把相比的主语和宾语排除出来，避免与自身相比。误句中的“any boy”(任何一个男孩）包括了汤姆，汤姆不能比他本身还高，不符合逻辑。
④有些含有比较级的句子里，常用that(单数、不可数名词)、those (复数名词)代替前面提到的词，以避免重复。
The weather in Beijing is colder than that in Guangzhou in winter .
The boys in our class are more than those in your class .
⑤注意比较级前表示程度可用的修饰语和不可用的修饰语——比较级前可用修饰语：much，a lot，far（.....得多），a little，a bit（一点），still（仍然），even（甚至），two times（两倍），以及具体的数词，如：two years等修饰。但是不可以用very和many来修饰。
He is very taller than his brother. (×)
He is much taller than his brother. (√)
七、形容词的最高级
1.基本用法
用于三者或三者以上的比较时，表示“最……”的要用最高级形容词。形容词的最高级前面要加定冠词the，后面常有一个in/of短语来表示比较范围。
I am the tallest in our class. 我是班里个子最高的。
My movements are the most graceful of us three. 三个人中我的动作是最优雅的.
2.惯用句型
①the +序数词+形容词的最高级+单数名词
The Yellow River is the second longest river in China .
②one of + the +形容词的最高级+复数名词
He is one of the cleverest students in our class.
八、形容词原级与比较级、最高级的转换
1.原级与比较级的转换
倍数+ as …as → (倍数-1)+比较级+than
This room is five times as big as that one=This room is four times bigger than that one .
2.比较级与最高级的转换
①the +最高级+ of / in...
②比较级+than+any other +单数名词
+the other +复数名词
+anyone else
+any of the other+复名
③Nobody else + 比较级 + than ……
Tom is the tallest boy in our class .
Tom is taller than any other boy in our class.
Tom is taller than the other boys in our class.
Nobody else is taller than Tom in our class.
考点八 副词的用法
一、副词的分类
1.时间副词——表示时间，如：now现在 ;today今天; soon很快; ago以前
2.地点副词——表示地点，如：there那里; here这里; out在外边; up在上边
3.方式副词——描述动作发生的方式，如：slowly缓慢地; quickly迅速地; carefully细心地
4.程度副词——描述行为、动作或状态的程度，如：too太; really的确; quite相当
5.频度副词——表示一定时间内动作发生的次数，如：always总是；sometimes有时
6.疑问副词——用来引出特殊疑问句，如： why为什么; where在哪里; when什么时候
7.关系副词——用来引导定语从句，如：where，when，why
8.连接副词——用来连接句子或从句，如：therefore因此，however但是；用来引导名词性从句或者和动词不定式连用，如when, why, where, how
二、副词的基本用法
1.副词用来修饰形容词、其他副词，一般放在被修饰词之前。He plays the piano very well .
2.副词用来修饰动词，常放在动词之后。 He got up quickly.
3.enough 修饰adj /adv 时，放在其后. He is old enough to go to school .
三、常见副词用法辨析
1.already与yet的区别
already用于肯定句句中，表示“已经”；yet用于否定句句末，表示“还”，用于疑问句句末，表示“已经”
He had already left when I called.
Have you found your ruler yet？
2. very，much和very much的区别
very用于修饰形容词或副词的原级；much用于修饰形容词或副词的比较级；修饰动词要用very much。
John is very honest.
This garden is much bigger than that one.
Thank you very much.
3.so与such的区别
①so修饰形容词或副词；such 修饰名词。
My brother runs so fast that I can’t follow him.
He is such a boy.
②so+形容词+a/an+可数名词单数，such+a/an+形容词+可数名词单数
such+形容词+可数名词复数/不可数名词
He is so clever a boy.=He is such a clever boy.
It is such cold weather.
They are such good students.
③名词前有many ,much, few ,little (少量的) 用so 不用such .(多多少少仍用so)， 但little 表示 “小的”时用such
There are so little sheep on the hill.
4.also，too，as well与either 的区别
also，as well，too，用于肯定句，also常用于be动词、情态动词、助动词之后，行为动词之前；as well，too用于句末；either用于否定句中，置于句末。
My father is a teacher. My mother is also a teacher.
=My father is a teacher. My mother is a teacher, too.
=My father is a teacher. My mother is a teacher as well.
I can’t speak French. Jenny can’t speak French either.
5.sometime，sometimes，some time与some times的区别
sometime：表示将来的或过去的某一个不确定的时间。
sometimes：有时，不时= at times
some time：一段时间
some times：几次，几倍
We’ll have a test some time next month.
Sometimes we are busy and sometimes we are not.
He stayed in Beijing for some time last year.
I have been to Beijing some times.
6.ago与before的区别
ago表示以现在为起点的“以前”，常与一般过去时连用，不可以单独使用。 before指过去或将来的某时刻“以前”，也可泛指以前，常和完成时连用，可以单独使用。
I saw him ten minutes ago
He told me that he had seen the film before.
7.now，just与just now的区别
now与一般现在时、现在进行时、现在完成时连用，意为“现在”
just与现在完成时连用，表示“刚……”
just now：和过去时连用，表示“刚才”
Where does he live now？
We have just seen the film.
He was here just now.
8.lonely / alone 的区别
1)alone 独自一人/没有同伴, 既可作adj 也可作adv.
2)lonely 表示孤独、寂寞，也可修饰地点，表示荒凉、偏僻的，常与feel 连用。
3)alone 只作表语 (以a开头的形容词一般只作表语，不作定语)，而lonely 既可作表语，也可作定语)
He lives alone on a lonely island .
He is alone ,but he doesn’t feel lonely.
四、副词的同级比较
1.as+原级副词+as，表示前后两者情况一样
You walk as fast as he does.你和他走路一样快。
2.not as/so+原级副词+as，表示前者不如后者
He can't use the computer so/as well as you. 他用电脑没有你用得好。
五、副词的比较级
① 比较级+than... 比……更
He swims better than I do. 他游泳游得比我好。
② the + 比较级，the + 比较级 越……，就越……
The harder you work, the better you’ll learn. 你学的越用功，你就会学得越好。
③ more and more... 越来越……
She plays the piano more and more beautifully. 她钢琴弹得越来越好听了。
六、副词的最高级
同形容词最高级用法基本一致——(the) + 副词最高级 + (in/of/among)
He studies (the) hardest of the three boys. 他是这三个男孩中学习最用功的。
She lives (the) nearest to the school. 她离学校住的最近。
考点九 动词的时态
一、一般现在时
1.概念：经常、反复发生的动作或行为及现在的某种状况。也可表示客观规律以及在时间、条件状语从句中表将来时（主将从现）
2.时间状语：
always, usually, often, sometimes, every week/day/year/month…, once a week, on Sundays,
3.基本结构：
①be动词：am/is/are ②行为动词：动词原形、第三人称单数。
4.否定形式：
①am/is/are+not; ② don’t /doesn’t +动词原形+……
5.一般疑问句：
①把be动词放于句首；② Do/Does +…+动词原形+…?
二、一般过去时
1.概念： 过去某个时间里发生的动作或状态；过去习惯性、经常性的动作、行为。
2.时间状语：ago, yesterday, the day before yesterday, last week(year, night, month...),
in 1989, just now, at the age of 5, one day, long long ago, once upon a time,...
3.基本结构：
①be动词；was/were …
②行为动词 :动词的过去式
4.否定形式：
①was/were+not; ② didn’t +动词原形
5.一般疑问句： ①was或were放于句首；② Did +…+动词原形……?
三、现在进行时
1.概念： 表示现阶段或说话时正在进行的动作及行为。
2.时间状语： now, at this time, these days, look/listen ,can you see? Can’t you see ?之类的暗示语。
3.基本结构： am/is/are+doing
4.否定形式： am/is/are+not+doing.
5.一般疑问句： Is /Are …+doing sth ?
四、过去进行时
1.概念： 表示过去某段时间或某一时刻正在发生或进行的行为或动作。
2.时间状语： at this/that time yesterday, at that time ,at six, yesterday evening ,from eight o’clock to nine o’clock last night 或以when/while引导的时间状语(过去进行时+when+一般过去时/ 一般过去时+while +过去进行时/过去进行时+while +过去进行时)。
3.基本结构： was/were+doing
4.否定形式： was/were + not + doing.
5.一般疑问句： 把was或were放于句首。
五、现在完成时
1.概念： 过去发生或已经完成的动作对现在造成的影响或结果，或从过去已经开始，持续到现在的动作或状态。
2.时间状语： recently, lately, since..., for..., in the past few years, already, yet ,never ,ever, just, before, so far ,once, twice etc.
3.基本结构： have/has + done
4.否定形式： have/has + not +done
5.一般疑问句： 把have或has放于句首。
7.注意
①have been to /have gone to /have been in 的区别
have been to +地点 表示曾经去过某地，现人已返回。
have gone to +地点 表示人已去了某地，人还未返回。
have been in +地点 表示在某地呆多长时间。
②与时间段连用时，短暂性动词应改为相应的延续性动词。
I have left school for 20 years. (×)
I have been away from school for 20 years. (√)
③惯用句型：
A)主语+短暂性动词的过去式+ 时间+ago
B)主语+have/has +延续性动词的过去分词+for…./since …. ago .
C).It’s/It has been +时间段+since +短暂性动词的过去式
D).时间段+has passed +since +短暂性动词的过去式
His grandfather died two years ago .
His grandfather has been dead for two years/since 2017.
It’s/It has been two years since his grandfather died.
Two years has passed since his grandfather died.
④现在完成时与一般过去时的区别
现在完成时是与现在有关的时态，侧重于过去的动作对现在造成的影响。而一般过去时侧重于表示过去的动作与现在无关，若询问该动作发生的具体的时间时，只能用一般现在时。
Has he returned the library book ? Yes, he has.
When did he return it ?He returned it yesterday afternoon.
六、过去完成时
1.概念： 以过去某个时间为标准，在此以前发生的动作或行为，或在过去某动作之前完成的行为，即“过去的过去”。
2.时间状语：
①before+过去时间，by+ 过去时间
by the end of last year(term, month„)
②by the time +从句（一般过去时），主句（过去完成时）
③用于由when ,after , before 引导的时间状语从句中，前后两动作都发生在过去。
过去完成时+when/before +一般过去时
一般过去时+after +过去完成时
④用于宾语从句中。
3.基本结构： had + done
4.否定形式： had + not + done
5.一般疑问句： 把had放于句首。
七、一般将来时
1.概念： 表示将要发生的动作或存在的状态及打算、计划或准备做某事。
2.时间状语： tomorrow, next day(week, month, year ) ,soon, in+一段时间, by..., the day after tomorrow, this evening ,tonight
3.基本结构：
①shall/will + 动词原型
②be going to + 动词原型
③be to + 动词原型
④be on the point of/be about to表示”正要做某事”，不与时间状语连用，但可和when从句连用
4.【惯用句型】祈使句/短语+and/or+主语+will
Work hard and you will succeed.
Work hard or you will fail.
考点十 动词的语态
一、语态的概念
语态是指特殊的动词形式，用以表示动作的主语和宾语之间的关系。英语的语态有两种：主动语态和被动语态。主动语态（Active Voice）中主语是动作的执行者，被动语态(Passive Voice中主语是动作的承受者。
主动语态：Many people speak English.
被动语态：English is spoken by many people.
二、被动语态的用法
1. 不知道谁是动作的执行者或没有必要。 The house was built in 1950.
2. 需要强调动作的承受者。如果同时将动作的发出者表达出来，可以在发出者前面加上by。
He was awarded first prize in that contest.
He was brought up by his grandmother.
3. 为了使语气婉转，避免提到是谁做的这件事。
Visitors are requested not to touch the exhibits.
三、被动语态的构成形式
1）一般现在时am/is/are +done
2）现在进行时 am/is /are being done
3）现在完成时has /have been done
4）一般过去时was/were done
5）过去进行时was/were being done
6）过去完成时had been done
7）一般将来时 will/shall be done
四、主动形式表示被动意义的情况
1.表示事物自然属性时，用实义动词（主动形式）+副词（有时不加），表示被动意义。如：The pen writes well. 这支笔很好写。
The magazine sells well. 这本杂志很好卖。
2.实义动词need, want, require, deserve, demand后接doing形式，可表示to be done的含义，如：
The house needs repairing. = The house needs to be repaired.
3.某些连系动词使用主动语态而表示被动的含义，如：
Einstein's theory proved to be correct.
Good medicine tastes bitter.
4.blame和let的不定式作表语时，可用主动语态表示被动意义
He was to blame for their deaths. 他要为他们的死负责。
The house is to let. 此房出租。
5.动词不定式的主动表被动：
①当不定式与它修饰的词之间为动宾关系，并且与句子的主语有逻辑上的主谓关系时，用主动形式表被动含义，如：
We have many problems to solve.
② sb/sth + be + adj. + 不定式结构中，若句子的主语是不定式的逻辑宾语，可用不定式的主动表示被动意义，如：
Some problems are not easy to solve.
6.在too…to…及enough to...结构中有时表示被动意义。
The problem is too difficult to solve.
五、 It is said that+从句及其他类似句型
一些表示“据说”或“相信”的动词如believe, consider, expect, report, say, suppose, think等可以用于句型“It＋be＋过去分词＋that从句”或“主语＋be＋过去分词＋to do sth.”。如：
It is said that… 据说
It is reported that…据报道
It is believed that…大家相信
It is hoped that…大家希望
It is well known that…众所周知
It is thought that…大家认为
It is suggested that…据建议
It is taken granted that… 被视为当然
It has been decided that… 大家决定
It must be remember that…务必记住的是
六、省略to 的不定式作宾补的被动语态
make/let/have/see/hear/feel/watch/make sb do sth →sb + be +made +to do sth
【口诀】感使动词真叫怪，to来to去记心怀，主动语态to离去，被动语态to回来。
The boss made the workers work all day.
The workers were made to work all day by the boss.
考点十一 情态动词
一、情态动词的用法
1. can 用法
①表示能力，与be able to同义，但can只用于现在时和过去时，be able to可用于各种时态。
I can do it on myself.
注：Can you … ? Yes, I can / No,I can’t.
②表示允许、请求，用could比can 语气更加委婉客气，常用于could I /you …..?句型中，若表示同意时，用can回答而不用could。
Could I borrow the book ? Yes, you can. /No, you can’t .
③表示推测，意为“可能”，常用于否定句或疑问句中（can’t表示一定不是）
Can it be true ? 会是真的吗？
It can’t be true. 不可能是真的。
2. may 用法
①表示许可或征求对方的许可（=can），常与第一人称连用。
May I ….?
Yes, you may. /Yes, please.
No, you can’t / mustn’t .
②表推测，意为“可能、也许”。常用于肯定句中。
Maybe he knows the news .= He may know the news.
3. must用法
①表示义务，意为“必须”（主观意志）。 We must do everything step by step.
Must I ….?
Yes, you must / No, you needn’t(don’t have to ).
②mustn’t 表禁止、不允许。 You mustn’t talk to her like that.
③表示推测，意为“想必、准是、一定”等，只用于肯定句。否定、疑问句中must改为can。
He must be ill. He looks so pale.
She’s wearing a diamond necklace. She must have a lot of money.
4.need用法
need既可用作情态动词，也可用作实义动词。用作情态动词时，主要否定句或疑问句中。用作实义动词时，可用于各种句式。
①用作情态动词，用于否定句和疑问句中。
■ Need I ….? Yes , you must / No, you needn’t .
■ need + do sth . 变否定句：needn’t do sth 变疑问句：Need sb do sth ?
②用作实义动词
■ need + to do sth . We need to buy some school things.
变否定句：don’t /doesn’t /didn’t +need to do sth.
变疑问句：Do / Does /Did sb + need to sth ?
Yes , … do/ does / did
No, sb don’t / doesn’t /didn’t .
■ 当主语是物时，sth + need + doing sth = sth +need to be done .
The table needs painting . =The table needs to be repaired.
5.had better 用法
①had better + 动词原形 = It’s best to do sth . 最好做某事
②had better not +动词原形 最好不要做某事
We had better not play the computer games .
6.must 与have to用法
①一般情况下，两者可互换。 must = have to
②must “必须，应该”表示说话人的主观看法，即说话人认为必须干某事。（内在原因； have to 意为“必须，不得不”，强调客观需要，即外界因素迫使某人不得不干某事。（外界原因）。
7. shall用法
①shall用于第一、第三人称构成的疑问句，表示征求对方意见或请求指示
Shall we begin our lesson?
②shall用于第二、第三人称陈述句中，表示说话人给对方的命令、警告、允诺、威胁、规定、必然性。
He shall be punished.（威胁）
All payments shall be made in cash. (规定)
8.should用法
①表示责任或义务，意为“应该”、“应当”，这时它可以和 ought to, be supposed to互换使用。
You should（= ought to）tell your mother about it at once.
②表示有较大可能实现的猜测、推论，通常译为“可能”
They should be home by now, I think.
③用在 suggest，propose, arrange, plan, decide, advise, order, demand, request, desire, insist 等表示“建议”、“要求”、“命令”、“决定”、“安排”、“计划”、“主张”的动词后面接的宾语从句中，要使用虚拟语气，谓语动词形式为（should）do，这里的 should 也可以省略。
I suggest that you （should ）have enough rest before the exam.
9.ought to用法
①表示劝告或建议，意为“应该”=should。如：
You ought to be stricter with him.
②表示推测，意为“可能……”，“应该……”。
He ought to be home by now.
二、情态动词后跟完成式的用法
1.can / could + have done
在肯定句中表示“本来可以做而实际上没有做某事”，是虚拟语气；在疑问句或否定句中表示对过去行为的怀疑或不肯定, 表示推测。
You could have done better, but you didn’t try your best.
He can’t have been to that town.
Can he have got the book?
2.may / might + have done
表示对过去行为的推测。不能用于疑问句中，没有虚拟语气的用法。might所表示的可能性比may小。
He may not have finished the work .
3.must + have done
用于肯定句中，表示对过去行为的推测。意为“一定、想必”。其疑问、否定形式用can，can’t代替。
You must have seen the film Titanic.
He must have been to Shanghai.
4.should + have done
①用于肯定句中，表示对过去行为的推测。He should have finished the work by now。
②表示“本应该做而实际上没有做某事”，其否定式表示某种行为本不该发生却发生了。可以与ought to + have done互换。
You ought to / should have helped him. (but you didn’t.)
She shouldn’t have taken away my measuring tape, for I wanted to use it.
5.need +have done
表示“本需要做而实际上没有做某事”，其否定式表示“本来不必做而实际上做了某事”。
You needn’t have watered the flowers, for it is going to rain.
考点十二 非谓语动词
一、动词不定式
1.动词不定式作宾语
①在动词want ,hope,would like,decide,wish, choose,try ,need等后常用动词不定式作宾语。
I hope to hear from you soon .
②【惯用句式】think/find /feel /make it + adj + to do sth
He found it difficult to get to sleep.
③stop to do sth / stop doing sth
stop to do sth 停下来去做某事
stop doing sth 停止正在做的事
After working for a long time , He has to stop to have a rest .
He was very tired , so he had to stop working.
2.动词不定式作宾补
①带to的不定式作宾补的动词有：ask / like /would like /teach /tell /want /help +sb +to do sth
Please ask him to come quickly.
②省掉to的不定式作宾补的动词有：
let /make / hear /see /notice /have/watch+sb +do sth
【注意】省掉to的不定式的句子变被动语态时，需要还原to .
He made the baby stop crying .
The baby was made to stop crying.
3.动词不定式作主语
①动词不定式用作句子的主语时，谓语动词用单数形式。
②常用it作形式主语，而将不定式放在句子后面。
To do sth +谓语动词+adj /n = It +谓语动词+adj / n + to do sth
To get an injection is a little painful .
It is a little painful to get an injection
4.动词不定式作定语
动词不定式作定语放在被修饰词之后 Please give me something to drink.
【注意】若构成的不定式的动词为不及物动词时，其后加上相应的介词。
I want a pen to write with.
5.动词不定式与疑问词连用——疑问词+ to do sth
在宾语从句中，若主从句的主语一致时，宾语从句可简化为“疑问词+to do sth
Can you tell me how I can get to the hospital ?
Can you tell me how to get to the hospital.
6.动词不定式作状语
①动词不定式可作目的状语
He came here to get his book.
②动词不定式可作原因状语
表语形容词（sorry/sad/happy/ glad /afraid/ pleased）后与动词不定式连用作原因状语
He was glad to see his wife.
③动词不定式可作结果状语
He returned home to find his father dead.
7.动词不定式作表语 be + to do sth
注：动词不定式作表语可以和主语的位置互换，且常表将来。
Her wish is to become a doctor . =To become a doctor is her wish .
8.动词不定式的否定形式
在动词不定式的前面加not .
He told me not to stay here .
二、动名词
1.动名词作主语
动名词可以在句中作主语，谓语动词一般用单数。
Playing with fire is dangerous.
2.动名词作表语
动名词可以在句中作表语，此时的动名词可以和主语调换位置。
My hobby is collecting stamps. = Collecting stamps is my hobby.
3.动名词作定语
动名词作定语，一般表示用途。
There are a lot of swimming pools in the city.
4.动名词作宾语
I enjoy listening to music.
He is fond of playing basketball.
【注意】need, want, require, deserve,demand作“需要”讲时，其后用动名词的主动式表示被动意义。
The flowers need watering/to be watered.
5.动名词的复合结构
动名词前可以加一个物主代词或名词所有格来表示这个动名词逻辑上的主语 ，构成动名词的复合结构。
Nixon's visiting China marked a new year between U.S. and China diplomatic relations.
I would appreciate your calling back this afternoon．
三、现在分词
1.现在分词作定语
现在分词作定语常放在被修饰词之前，现在分词短语作定语要放在被修饰词的后面，相当于一个定语从句。
A sleeping baby = a baby who is sleeping
Did you know the man talking to Mr Li?= Did you know the man who was talking to Mr Li?
2.现在分词作状语
现在分词作状语时，可作时间、条件、结果、原因和伴随状语，表示正在进行的或主动的动作,此时分词的逻辑主语就是主句的主语。
Seeing the police, he made a run for the exit.
He came into the classroom ,carrying a book.
3.现在分词作宾补
宾语与作宾补的现在分词之间存在逻辑上的主谓关系，即宾语是现在分词动作的发出者
Soon they could see the sun rising from the east.
4.现在分词作表语
现在分词作表语多表示主语的特征, 如amusing, interesting, puzzling, refreshing, astonishing, exciting 等
The story is quite interesting. 这个故事很有趣。
四、过去分词
1.过去分词作表语
过去分词作表语已经形容词化
The window is broken.
2.过去分词作定语
单一的过去分词作定语，要放在被修饰词的前面；过去分词短语作定语要放在被修饰词的后面，相当于一个定语从句。
fallen leaves
Have you ever read any books written by Luxun?
=Have you ever read any books that were written by Luxun?
3.过去分词作状语
过去分词作状语时，可作时间、条件、原因和伴随状语，表示被动的和完成的动作。此时分词的逻辑主语就是主句的主语。
Given more time, we would certainly have finished the job much better.
The professor sat there，surrounded by a lot of students.
4.过去分词的作宾补
宾语与作宾补的过去分词之间存在逻辑上的动宾关系，即宾语是过去分词动作的承受者
He got his tooth pulled out yesterday.
第二部分 句法
考点十三 主谓一致
一、就近原则
1.由并列结构或连词（either...or， neither...nor，not...but， not only...but also， or等）连接的并列主语，谓语动词与较近的那个名词或代词保持一致。
Neither his parents nor Tom is at home.
2.在倒装句和there be句型中，谓语动词与后面的第一个主语保持一致。
There is a book and some pens on the desk.
There comes the bus.
3.在定语从句中，关系代词作主语，其谓语动词应与它所指代的先行词保持一致。
I know the man who is talking to my father.
4.在强调句中，连接代词又在句中作主语，这时它应与被强调的主语保持一致。
It is Mary’s brother who/that was injured in the car accident yesterday.
二、意义一致原则
1.当主语与谓语动词之间插入along with，with，as well as，together with， besides，except， but， including等短语时 ，谓语动词与第一个主语保持一致。
I along with my sister am going to Shanghai next month.
2.由“what”引导的名词性从句作主语时，谓语动词通常用单数形式。
What I want to say is just “ Take care!”.
3. “...+ (of) +名词”作主语时，若“of”后的名词为单数（不可数名词），则谓语动词用单数，如果名词为复数，则谓语动词用复数。
Most of the water here is clean.
Half of the apples are red.
4.词组“a number of”作主语时，谓语动词应用复数；“the number of”作主语时，谓语动词用单数。
A number of ancient buildings were destroyed in the war.
The number of the visitors has decreased this year.
5.英语的集体名词（family, public, group, team, class等词），指代“整体”时为单数；指代“其中的各成员”则为复数。
My family was very poor when I was a little girl.
My family are all looking forward for your coming.
三、整体原则
1.从句、不定式、动名词等作主语时谓语动词用单数。
When to leave has not been decided.
Watching TV too much is bad for your eyes.
2.如果两个以上的名词组成一个整体概念作主语时，谓语动词须用单数。
The novelist and poet is going to Europe next year.
The novelist and the poet are going to Europe next year.
3.表示时间、距离、金额、度量等词语作主语时，通常被视作整体，谓语动词用单数。
Ten minutes is enough.
4.“the +姓氏名词的复数”表示“一家人/….夫妇”，作主语时，谓语动词用复数形式。
The Blacks enjoy working in China.
四、个体原则
1. every +….and every +…..或each+…and each +…作主语时，谓语动词用单数形式。
Every man and every woman is busy at working.
2.英语句中的each， either， neither等词，作代词充当主语，修饰名词作主语时，谓语动词用单数。
Neither of us has been abroad.
Neither answer is acceptable
3. 由some, any every, no构成的复合词（somebody，nobody，everything，anything等）作主语时，谓语动词用单数。
Somebody is waiting for you at the school gate.
4. 成双成对出现的复数名词（glasses，shoes，trousers，pants，gloves等）作主语时，通常谓语动词用复数，但前面有a /the pair of；a /the suit of等词语时，则谓语动词要与量词（pair, suit, piece ）在单复数上保持一致。
A piece of paper is on the desk.
Two pieces of paper are on the desk.
5.以复数形式出现，却表示单数意义（maths, physics, news …），谓语用单数。
Maths is my favorite subject.
6.“the +形容词（old /young /rich /poor ）”表示“一类人”，作主语时，谓语用复数。
The young like listening to popular songs .
考点十四 倒装
1.当句首为副词here ，there 且主语为名词时，应用完全倒装。
Here comes the bus !
There goes the bell !
2.only 修饰时间、地点、方式等状语时，应用部分倒装。
Only in this way can we solve the problem.
Only when you told me did I know her name.
【注意】如果 only 修饰的不是状语，则句子不倒装。
Only Uncle Li knows how it happened.
3.表示对前者的陈述也适用后者时，肯定倒装用“ so + 助动词／情态动词 + sb”；前句是否定，而后面的人也不怎么样时用“ neither / nor + 助动词 / 情态动词 + sb”。
He can speak English, and so can I.
If she doesn’t go there tomorrow，neither / nor will I.
【注意】
①“ so + 助动词 / 情态动词 + sb” 表示前者的主语和后者的主语的情况一样，所谈到的是两个人，意为“...也是这样”；
②“ so + sb + 助动词 / 情态动词”表示前者和后者所指同一人时，说话者表示同意前者的观点，意为“的确如此”。 — Li Lei likes sports. — So he does and so do I.
4.由 not only...but also...引起的并列句，若将 not only 置于句首时，该分句应部分倒装， but also 引导的分句不倒装。
Not only did he give me some advice，but also he lent me some money.
5.否定词用于句首时，句子应进行部分倒装。否定词常用的有：
Not until(直到…..才)，No sooner….(than)(一…..就)，Never/ Rarely/Seldom，Hardly/Scarcely，Few/Little，At no time，Under no circumstances(决不)，On no account (决不)，In no way等。
No sooner had I arrived school than it began to rain.
Seldom does he talk to his desk-mate.
6.as引导的让步状语从句表“尽管”时，要将表语、状语和动词原形提到句首
Young as he is, the team leader is very capable.
Child as he was, he had to make a living.
考点十五 强调
英语中常见的用来表示强调的句型有以下几种。
1.It is / was + 被强调部分 + that/who + 其他成分
I met him in the park this morning.
→It was I who / that met him in the park this morning.（强调主语）
→It was him that I met in the park this morning.（强调宾语）
It was in the park that I met him this morning.(强调地点状语)
It was this morning that I met him in the park.(强调时间状语)
【注意 】
①如果原句中谓语动词使用的是现在范畴的时态(一般现在时/现在进行时/现在完成/现在完成进行时/一般将来时/将来进行时/将来完成时等)用It is...that/who...。如果原句中谓语动词为过去范畴的时态(一般过去时/过去进行时/过去完成时/过去将来时等)则用It was...that/who...。
It was Peter who / that got the first place in the final exam.
It is not everyone who / that can pass the college entrance exam.
②强调句型的一般疑问句只需把is / was提前，它的特殊疑问句只需在一般疑问句前加上疑问词。如:
Was it Smith who / that broke the window?
Who was it that broke the window?
③not...until...的强调句式
当被强调的是not...until...句型时，应将not置于until之前，主句由否定句改为肯定句。如:
We didn’t recognize her until she took off her glasses.
→It was not until she took off her glasses that we recognized her.
（注：Not until she took off her glasses did we recognize her. 此句为否定词not位于句首， 句子要用部分倒装）
2.谓语动词的强调
It is / was...that/who...结构不能强调谓语，如果需要强调谓语时，则用助动词do / does / did + 动词原形表示。 如:
He did tell all that had happened to him.
She does get up early every day.
Mary， do come to my birthday party tonight.
3.用形容词very， only， single， such等来修饰名词来表示强调
This is the very book that I’m looking for.
He is the only one of the students who passed the English test.
Not a single spelling mistake did he make in the composition.
4. 用倒装句来强调以加强语气
Never shall I forget the day when Mr. Wang gave us the first lesson.
So aloud did he speak that everyone could hear him clearly.
考点十六 省略
为了使讲话和行文简洁，句中某些成分有时可省略。 省略可分以下几种情况：
一、简单句中的省略
1.省略主语：祈使句中主语通常省略，其它省略主语多限于少数现成的说法。
(I)Thank you for your help.
(I) See you tomorrow.
(It) Doesn’t matter.
2.省略主谓语或主谓语的一部分。
(There is) No smoking.
(Is there) Anything wrong?
Why (do you) not say hello to him?
3.省略作宾语的不定式短语，只保留to。
-Are you going there?
-I’d like to (go there).
4.省略表语。
-Are you thirsty?
-Yes, I am (thirsty).
5.介词的省略
The old man had no difficulty (in ) finding his house.
6.名词所有格后面的名词，如果是表示住宅，店铺，教堂或者上下文已经暗示或明确指出过的事物时常省略。
At her sister’s (house), she spent a pleasant weekend.
7.连词的省略：
not only… but (also)…, whether… (or not), so (that)
8.情态动词should的省略
He suggested that I (should) go with him.
二、并列句中的省略
两个并列分句中，后一个分句常省略与前一分句中相同的部分。
My father is a doctor and my mother (is) a nurse.
I study at college and my sister (studies) at high school.
三、主从复合句中的省略
1.状语从句中的省略
状语从句中，若从句的主语是it或与主句的主语相同，且在谓语中含有be时，常省略从句的主语和be。
When (she is) young, she used to go fishing with her grandpa.
While (you are) talking with Mr White, you are wanted on the telephone.
2.定语从句中的省略
①一般说来，在限制性定语从句中，作宾语的关系代词 that ,which , whom 可以省略。
Is this reason (that) he explained at the meeting for his carelessness in his work?
②当先行词为表示方式的 the way 时 ，从句不能用 how 来引导 ，应该用that 或 in which ，或将它们全部省略。
I don't like the way (that/in which) you laugh at her.
3.宾语从句中的省略
①在及物动词后面所接的宾语从句中，连词that 一般可以省略；但如果及物动词后面是由that引导的两个或两个以上的并列的宾语从句 ，那么只有第一个that可以省略。
I think (that) the reform of the RMB's exchange rate is necessary.
He said (that)the Anti-secession law had been passed and that President Hu Jintao had signed a presidential order
②由 which , when ,where , how,和 why 引导的宾语从句，可以全部或部分省略。
He wants to move abroad but his parents wonders why (he wants to move abroad)
4.主语从句中的省略
主语从句省略多用于句首。如：
(It is a ) Pity that I didn’t go to Mary's birthday party yesterday.
考点十七 虚拟语气
虚拟语气主要指的的是带有非真实条件状语从句的复合句，表达的是说话人的遗憾后悔的语气，愿望以及建议，命令，要求等等的情感，往往说的是与事实相反或者没办法实现改变的东西。
1.条件从句虚拟语气的基本用法
虚拟的时间
从句
主句
例句
与现在事实相反
主语+did/were
主语+should / would/
could / might + do
If I were you, I would accept his offer.
与过去事实相反
主语+ had done
主语+ should / would/ could / might + have done
If you had studied hard before, you would have passed the exam.
对将来事实不确定的假设
主语+
1.did
2.should do
3.were to do
主语+should / would/
could / might + do
If it rained/should rain/were to rain tomorrow, I would stay at home.
通常，在上面表格里反映的是非真实条件句的虚拟语气模式，从句和主句的谓语动词时间是一致的，如果两者时间不一致，此时就是混合型虚拟语气。
2.混合型虚拟语气
混合型虚拟语气的使用要求“各自为政”，即从句和主句根据各自假设的时间不同，采用上面表格中对应的的谓语动词形式，同时注意句中时间状语的暗示。
If I had seen you, I would not be so worried now. (从句是对过去的假设，主句是对现在的假设)
If I had made some money last summer, I would go on holiday next month.( 从句是对过去的假设，主句是对将来的假设)
3.省略if的非真实条件句
虚拟语气在if引导的条件状语从句中，特别注意虚拟语气与倒装的结合，前提是省略if，这种情况多见于过去和将来的假设，具体表现是将if省略，把had, were, should之类词语提前构成倒装。例如：
Were I you, I would go.
Should it happen, what should you do?
Had he recognized me, he would have come over.
4.含蓄虚拟语气
有时假设的情况并不是以if引导的条件从句形式出现，而是通过一些短语等形式暗示虚拟语气的存在，常用的词语有without, but for, otherwise, or等等。
But for your encouragement, I would not have been admitted to this university.
Without water, all lives would die.
He felt too tired yesterday, or he would have attended my party.
I was having a meeting, otherwise I would have come to see you off.
5.虚拟语气的其他用法
①虚拟语气的另一个重要知识点就是should +v.的用法，主要是有关建议和命令的相关从句，包括主语从句，宾语从句，表语从句，同位语从句以及以之相关的形式主语/宾语之类的从句。这一部分的词主要有常见的动词有advise, suggest, insist, order, require, recommend, command以及相关名词等；常用的形容词important, necessary, right, advisable, natural, strange, surprising, regretful,urgent, vital, insistent, essential等；常用的名词duty, pity, no surprise, no wonder, shame, regret等（其实这些词在句子中其实也有建议命令类似的的意思）。如：
The general ordered (that) all the soldiers (should ) leave.
He gives orders that the soldiers (should) leave.
My suggestion is that we (should) stay here for a rest.
It’s important that you (should) take the medicine.
It was suggested that he (should) join the club activities.
②would rather, It’s time…, for fear that…
■ would rather在使用时要注意它的不同用法。因为本身would rather可以直接接动词原形，构成would rather do sth. (than do sth.else); 或者would do sth. rather than do sth. else.而虚拟语气的would rather 是这样使用的：would rather sb. did(对现在或将来的假设)/ had done(对过去的假设)
I would rather he didn’t go now.
They would rather they hadn’t attended the party.
■ It’s (about) (high) time (that)…从句中常用过去式(有时也用should do), 含建议的意思。汉语的意思为“是该做…的时候了”，也等于It’s time for sb. to do sth.
It’s high time (that) we went home.
It’s high time that we should go home.
It’s high time for us to go home.
■ for fear that 后面可以接虚拟语气should do，也可以接其他语气，但依然会有一个情态动词。
I will not make a noise for fear that I should / might disturb you.
③wish+从句； as if/ though+从句； If only这三种情况的虚拟语气
■ wish后的宾语从句，谓语动词要用虚拟语气，其形式主要有三种wish sb. did(对现在的虚拟); wish sb. had done(对过去的虚拟); wish sb. would do (对将来的虚拟)。偶尔在对过去的虚拟时，也会出现wish sb. would have done的情况。
I wish I knew what was going to happen.
She wished she had stayed at home.
I wish I would have seen her last night.
■ as if/ though出现的虚拟语气主要有两种情况：主句+as if/ though引导的状语从句； seem/ look/ smell +as if/ though引导的表语从句。
(1)主句+as if/ though引导的状语从句：主句+as if/ though+主语+did/ were(对现在的假设)；主句+as if/ though+主语+could/ would do(对将来的假设)；主句+as if/ though+主语+had done(对过去的假设)
She talks about New York as if she had been there before.
(2)seem/ look/ smell +as if/ though引导的表语从句：情况基本上和上面一致。
You look as if you didn’t care．
④If only引起的感叹句要用虚拟语气，表示愿望。形式为：用过去式或者would/ could do, 表示与现在或未来事实相反的愿望； 用过去完成式表示与过去事实相反的愿望。
If only he were here!
If only you would listen to our advise!
If only I had not been busy last week!
考点十八 状语从句
1.时间状语从句
1)由when 、 while、as（当……时候）引导的时间状语从句。
When jack got home , his mother was cooking .
2)由after/ before (在….之后/ 前)引导的时间状语从句。
The football match played after school was over .
3)由as soon as (一…..就……)引导的时间状语从句。
I’ll ring you as soon as I reach Beijing .
4)由not….until（直到…..才…..）引导的时间状语从句。
They didn’t stop until they finished the work .
2.原因状语从句
由because 、since 、as（因为、既然、由于）引导的原因状语从句。
Since you have known about that , please tell us what to do .
3.地点状语从句
由where, anywhere, everywhere, wherever（无论在哪儿） 引导的地点状语从句。
Wherever he goes , he always brings his pet dog .
The school was built where there had once been a cemetery.
4.目的状语从句
由so that, in order that (以便、为的是)引导目的状语从句。
He got up very early so that he could catch the early bus .
5.条件状语从句
由if或unless 引导条件状语从句。
I won’t go to his party unless I am invited .
6.比较状语从句
由than、 as…as、not as……as 引导比较状语从句。
There are more students in our class than in theirs .
7.让步状语从句
由though 、even though/ if 、although引导让步状语从句。
Although he didn’t pass the exam ,his father didn’t get angry with him .
8.方式状语从句
由as if (好像)引导方式状语从句。
He talked about that as if he knew everything .
9.结果状语从句
由so…that…、such….that…（如此…..以致于…）引导结果状语从句。
It was raining so hard that we couldn’t see the road .
考点十九 宾语从句
一、基本用法
1.概念：在句中担当宾语的从句叫宾语从句，宾语从句可作谓语动词的宾语，也可做介词的宾语。
He said he was good at drawing. (动词宾语)
Miss Zhang is angry at what you said.
2.连接词
(1)陈述句转化成宾语从句时，引导词用that，口语中常常省略。
She told me (that) she would like to go with us.
(2)以 whether 或 if 引导的宾语从句, 主要用来引导一般疑问句意思或选择疑问句意思的宾语从句，从句同样是陈述语序
I wonder if /whether you have told the news to Li Lei .
【注意】一般情况下，whether 和if 可以互用， 但有些情况例外。
a. 当从句做介词的宾语时只用whether 不用if
We are talking about whether we'll accept his suggestion.
b. 引导词与动词不定式或 not 连用时， 只用whether.
You'd better decide for yourself whether to go or not.
(3)特殊疑问句转化成宾语从句时，引导词用特殊疑问词，引导词后要用陈述句语序。
Could you tell me what's the matter\wrong with you?
3.宾语从句时态
a.当主句是一般现在时，一般将来时或祈使句时，从句不受主句的限制，根据自身的需要选用相应的时态。例如：
Do you know（if/whether he has seen the film）?
b.当主句是一般过去时，从句要用过去时的相应时态。例如：
I didn't know （if/whether he had seen the film.）
【注意】当主句是一般过去时，而从句表示的是客观真理，自然现象，科学原理，格言等，从句仍然要用一般现在时。例如：
He said （that the earth moves round the sun.）
二、宾语从句的转化
1.当主句谓语动词是hope，wish，decide，forget，plan，agree等，且主句主语与从句主语相同时，从句可简化为不定式结构。如：
She agreed that she could help me with my maths.
→She agreed to help me with my maths.
2.当主句的谓语动词是know, learn, forget, remember, decide等后面带特殊疑问句转化的宾语时，主从句的主语也须一致这时从句可以简化成“疑问词＋不定式结构”。例如：
I don't know which sweater I should buy.→I don't know which sweater to buy.
考点二十 主语从句
一、主语从句的引导词
1. that引导
That he is still alive is a wonder.
That we shall be late is certain.
2. whether引导
Whether it will do us harm remains to be seen.
Whether they would support us was a problem.
3. 连接代词引导
Whoever is top from wins the game when two matched players meet.
Whichever (of you) comes in first will receive a prize.
Whichever you want is yours.
4. 连接副词引导
When we arrive doesn’t matter.
How it was done was a mystery.
5. 关系代词型what引导
What we need is money.
What I want to know is this.
二、主语从句与形式主语it
有时为了考虑句子平衡，通常在主语从句处使用形式主语it，而将真正的主语从句移至句末。这分三种情况：
(1) 对于以连词that引导的主语从句，通常用形式主语it代主语从句：
It’s a pity that he didn’t come. 很遗憾他没来。
It is important that he should know about this. 他必须知道此事。
(2) 对于以连接代词(副词)引导的主语从句，可以使用形式主语代主语从句，也可直接在句首使用主语从句：
Whether they would support us was a problem. 他们是否会支持我们还是一个问题。
It was a problem whether they would support us. 他们是否会支持我们还是一个问题。
(3) 对关系代词型what引导的主语从句，通常直接将主语从句放在句首。如：
What we need is money. 我们需要的是钱。
What I want to know is this. 我想知道的就是这一点。
有时也可用形式主语。如：
It is clear enough what he meant. 他是什么意思很清楚。
三、连词that的省略问题
引导主语从句的连词that 有时可省，有时不能省，其原则是：若that引导的主语从句直接位于句首，则that不能省略；若that引导的主语从句位于句末，而在句首使用了形式主语it，则that可以省略：
That you didn’t go to the talk was a pity. 很遗憾你没去听报告。(that不可省)
It was a pity (that) you didn’t go to the talk. 很遗憾你没去听报告。(that可省)
考点二十一 表语从句
一、定义
在句中作表语的从句叫做表语从句。
二、引导表语从句的关联词的种类
(1)从属连词that。在从句中不做成分。
The trouble is that I have lost his address.
The reason was that he was late for school.
(2)从属连词whether,as,as if。
He looked just as he had looked ten years before.
The question is whether they will be able to help us.
注：从属连词if一般不用来引导表语从句，但as if却可引导表语从句。
注：能跟表语从句的谓语动词一般为系动词be, seem, look，sound等。如：
He looked just as he had looked ten years before.
It sounds as if someone is knocking at the door. (3)连接代词who, whom, whose, what, which, whoever, whatever, whichever在表语从句中做主语、宾语等。
The problem is who we can get to replace her. 问题是我们能找到谁去替换她呢。
That was what she did this morning on reaching the attic. 那就是她今晨上了阁楼干的。
(4)连接副词 where, when, how, why。
What I wonder is when he left. 我想知道他是何时离开的。
This is where they once lived. 这就是他们曾经住过的地方。 That is why he didn't come here.
The question is how he did it.
(5)连词because可引导表语从句。
That's because he didn't understand me. 那是因为他没有理解我.(That's because...强调原因)
That's why he got angry with me.那正是他对我生气的原因。(That's why...强调结果)
(6)在一些表示“建议、劝说、命令”的名词后面的表语从句中，谓语动词用虚拟语气。should+动词原形表示，should可省略。如：
My suggestion is that we (should) start early tomorrow. 我的建议是我们明天一早就出发。
考点二十二 同位语从句
一、同位语从句在句中的位置
1. 一般情况下同位语从句跟在某些名词（如news，idea，fact，promise，hope，message等）的后面，用以说明该名词所表达的具体内容。
The news that our women volleyball team had won the championship encouraged us all greatly.
I've come from Mr Wang with a message that he won't be able to see you this afternoon.
2. 有时同位语从句可以不紧跟在它所说明的名词后，而被别的词语隔开，在语法上叫做分隔式同位语从句。
The thought came to her that maybe she had left the door open when she left home.
The story goes that he failed in the College Entrance Examinations again.
二、同位语从句连接词的选用
在英语中，引导同位语从句的词通常有连词（that，who，whether），连接副词（how，when，where）等。
They were all very much worried over the fact that you were sick.
The question who should do the work requires consideration.
We haven't yet settled the question where we are going to spend our summer vacation.
【注意】在名词doubt“怀疑”后的同位语从句用whether连接；在no doubt“不怀疑”之后的同位语从句用that连接。例如：
We have some doubt whether they can complete the task on time.
There is no doubt that Zhang Wei will keep his promise.
◆ that引导的同位语从句
有些名词的后面可以接that引导的同位语从句，这些名词有advice，announcement，argument，belief，claim，conclusion，decision，evidence，explanation，fact，feeling，hope，idea，impression，information，knowledge，message，news，opinion，order，probability，promise，proposal，remark，reply，report，saying，statement，suggestion，thought，treat，warning，wish，word。
We came to the decision that we must act at once.
He made a proposal that the meeting be postpone.
◆ whether引导的同位语从句（不可用if）
He hasn't made the decision whether he will go there.
I have small doubt whether he is suitable for the job.
考点二十三 定语从句
一、定语从句的定义
在复合句中， 修饰名词或代词的从句叫做定语从句。被定语从句所修饰的词叫先行词。引导定语从句的词叫关系词。关系词包括关系代词who(宾格whom,所有格whose),that, which 和关系副词where, when, why 等。
二、定语从句的种类
定语从句可以分为限定性定语从句和非限定性定语从句。
1.限定性定语从句：它是先行词在意义上不可缺少的定语，如果去掉，主句的意思就不完整或失去意义。
The man that wears a red hat is my uncle.
2.非限定性定语从句：它只是对先行词作附加补充说明，如果去掉，主句的意思仍然清楚完整。书写时往往用逗号分开。非限定性定语从句一般不用that 引导，而且不可以省略关系词。
The old woman, who lives on her own, has a cat for company.
Beijing, which is the capital city of China, is a very beautiful city.
三、关系代词的用法
在定语从句中， 关系代词起着连接主句与从句，指代先行词和在从句中作句子成分的三重作用。关系代词的选用取决于主句中的先行词以及关系代词在从句中作何种成分。
（一）关系代词who, whom 的用法
1.who 可以代替人（即它的先行词必须是人），在从句中担任主语，往往也可以代替在从句中担任宾格的whom，但它的前面不能有介词，如果带介词则必须用宾格whom，即“介词+whom”.
Jim is a person who always has novel ideas.
The person who/whom you just talked to is Mr. Depp.
The person to whom you just talked is Mr. Depp.
（二）关系代词whose 的用法
关系代词whose 是关系代词who 的所有格形式，它既可以代人，也可以代物。当whose 代物时，相当于of which。
Do you know Peter whose father happens to be working in your company?
The tourist wanted to book a room whose window faces south.
=The tourist wanted to book a room the window of which faces south.
=The tourist wanted to book a room . The room’s window faces south.
（三）关系代词that, which 的用法
（1）在限定性定语从句中指代物时，which 和that 一般可通用。
The new house that/which I has just bought is about six miles away.
（2）限定性定语从句中只用that 而不用which 的情况。
A）先行词有形容词最高级修饰时
This is the best way that has been used against pollution.
B) 先行词有序数词修饰时
This is the third time that they have met.
C)主句已有疑问词who 或which 时
Which of the cars that are in front of the hotel belongs to you?
D) 先行词既有人又有物时
He talked about the schools and teachers that he had visited.
E) 先行词为all, much, few, little, something, everything, anything, nothing, none 等不定代词时
It’s easy to do the repair. All that you need is a hammer and some nails.
四、关系副词的用法（where, when, why）
关系副词在从句中均做状语，所以具体选用什么关系副词，主要取决于关系副词在从句中充当什么类型的状语。
（一）关系副词where 的用法
由关系副词where引导的定语从句，其先行词主要是表示地点的名词，如building, city, room等，where 在从句中作地点状语。
The hotel where we stayed was very clean.= The hotel (that/which) we stayed at was very clean.
（二）关系副词when 的用法
由when引导的定语从句，其先行词主要是表示时间的名词，如 time, day, date,等，when 在从句中作时间状语。
I’ll never forget the time when we first met in London .
=I’ll never forget the time during which we first met in London.
（三）关系副词why 的用法
由why 引导的定语从句，常用在先行词reason 后面，why 在句中作原因状语。
The reason why I got a job was that I worked hard.
五、关系代词和关系副词引导的定语从句的区别
如果关系词在从句中制作主语或宾语，就是关系代词；如果关系词在定语从句中做状语，就是关系副词。例句比较：
This is the college (that/which) I visited.
This is the college where I studied three years ago.
考点二十四 独立主格
一、独立主格结构的构成
（1）逻辑主语 +现在分词
The moon appearing，they decided to go on with their journey.
（2）逻辑主语 +过去分词
The job finished, we went home.
（3）逻辑主语 +不定式
His mother to come tonight, he is busy preparing the dinner.
（4）逻辑主语 +形容词或副词
He turned to me, his eyes sleepy.
The music on, I can’t focus my mind on the work.
（5）逻辑主语 + 名词
Many people come to visit the city, most of them foreigners.
（6）逻辑主语 +介词短语
A girl came in, book in hand.
（7）There being +名词（代词）
There being no bus, we had to walk home.
（8）It being +名词（代词）
It being Christmas, the government offices were closed.
（9）with/without复合结构
“with/without复合结构”是指“with +宾语（名词或代词）+ 非谓语动词（分词、不定式）、介词短语、形容词或副词等”所构成的一种介词短语。
With his son so disappointing, the old man felt unhappy. （with + 宾语 +形容词）
With her sister out, she had to stay at home alone. （with + 宾语 +副词）
He stood at the door, with a computer in his hand. （with + 宾语 +介词短语）
With his homework done, Peter went out to play. （with + 宾语 +过去分词）
二、独立主格结构的功能
①作时间状语（相当于一个时间状语从句）
My shoes removed, I entered the ancient temple.(=After my shoes were removed)
②作条件状语（相当于一个条件状语从句）
Weather permitting, we are going to have a picnic tomorrow. (If weather permits)
③作原因状语（相当于一个原因状语从句）
All our savings gone, we started looking for jobs.(=As all our savings were gone)
④作伴随状语
He was lying on the grass, his hands crossed under his head. (= and his hands were crossed under his head)
⑤作补充说明
A hunter came in, his face red with cold. (= and his face was red with cold)
