语法（4）
1. 反身代词是一种表示反射或强调的代词。它的基本含义是通过反身代词指代主语，使施动者把动作在形式上反射到施动者自己。因此，反身代词与它所指代的名词或代词形成互指关系，在人称、性质、数上保持一致。反身代词的句法功能如下：
①用作同位语（加强被修饰词的语气，紧放在被修饰名词后，或句末）。
e.g. Mrs.Black herself is a lawyer.布莱克太太本人就是一名律师。
You had better ask the driver himself. 你最好问司机本人。
②用作宾语（动词或介词的宾语）。
e.g. He made no complaint for himself. 他没为自己抱怨什么。
She could not make herself understood. 她不能使别人听懂她的话。
Everybody here has the influenza including myself. 包括我在内所有人都患上了流感。
③用作表语。
e.g. The ones who really want it are ourselves. 真正想要它的是我们自己。
注意：有时用于be,feel,seem,look等后作表语表示身体或精神处于正常状态。eg. Mary hasn't quite been herself recently,玛丽近来感到不适。
I'll be myself again in no time. 我过一会儿就会好的。
④用作主语。在现代英语中，反身代词一般不能独立用作主语，但是它却可以借助and, or, nor.
2. 在英语中，当名词的修饰语是由一个词组或一个句子表示时，通常后置，称为后置饰语，名词的后置修饰语，大体上分为五种情况。
①名词＋介词短语。
e.g.a campsite with no road access一个无路可通的露营地（介词＋名词）
our pictures of who we are 我们关于“我们是谁”的描述（介词＋名词从句）
the importance of being able to use a foreign language 能够使用一门外语的重要性（介词＋动名词）
②名词＋定语从句。
e.g.people who wanted to play chess better 想要把象棋下得更好的人
the type of work which will suit your interest 适合你兴趣的工作类型
an area where people have obviously camped before一块之前显然有人露营过的地方
③名词＋非谓语词组（分词、不定式）。
e.g.a man named Joseph Merlin(过去分词词组）
一个名叫约瑟夫·梅林的男人
an email asking for her credit card account number(现在分词词组）
一封向她索要信用卡账号的电子邮件
the first step to guarantee a good night's sleep(不定式词组）保证良好睡眠的第一步
④名词＋同位语（名词词组、从句）。
e.g. Akasaki, the Nobel Prize winner in 2014,is a physicist.
赤崎勇，2014年诺贝尔物理奖得主，是一个物理学家。
my wish that she accept the award 我的愿望即她能接受那个奖项
the Russian director Andrei Tarkovsky, one of the greatest of all film artists
俄罗斯导演安德烈·塔可夫斯基，有史以来最伟大的电影艺术家之一
⑤名词＋形容词＋不定式或介词短语
e.g. a result quite different from what we had expected(形容词＋介词短语）一个完全不同于我们预期的结果
a language easy to learn but difficult to master(形容词＋不定式）一门易学但难精通的语言
3. “介词＋关系代词”引导的定语从句：
①由“介词＋关系代词”引导的定语从句主要用于正式文体，在非正式文体中可将介词放至句末。
e.g. This is the man to whom I referred.This is the man(whom)I referred to. 我指的就是这个人。
②直接用于介词后作宾语的关系代词which不能换成that,直接用于介词后作宾语的关系代词whom不能换成who.但若介词用于句末，则用作宾语的which, whom也可换成that, who, 或者省略。
e.g. This is a subject about which we have talked a lot. (which不能换成that,不能省略）
This is a subject which we have talked about a lot. (which可以换成that,也可以省略）是一个我们讨论了很多的问题。
③关系副词when,where,why根据情况有时可换成“介词＋关系代词which”。
e.g. That is the day when (=on which) he was born. 那就是他出生的日子。
That is the house where (=in which) he lived. 那就是他住过的房子。
That is the reason why (=for which) he must apologize. 那就是他必须道歉的原因。
④在很正式的文体中，“介词＋关系代词”引导的定语从句可紧缩成“介词＋关系代词＋不定式”结构。
e.g. There the children had a garden in which to play. (很正式）
There the children had a garden in which they could play. (较正式）
There the children had a garden to play in. (较口语化）在那儿孩子们有个玩耍的花园。
注意：这类“介词＋关系代词＋不定式”结构中的介词不能没有，也不能放在句末。如不能说There the children had a garden which to play in.
4. hope后接宾语的用法举例：
①从说话语气上看，hope用于表示可能实现的事情，后接从句时，用陈述语气。
e.g. I hope I shall see him again. 我希望再见他一次。
I hope you haven't hurt yourself. 但愿你没有受伤。
②从含义上看，hope多用于指对好事的盼望、预想；对坏事的预想则多用afraid. . . ”。
e.g. I hope it will be fine tomorrow. 我希望明天天气好。
I'm afraid it will rain again. 恐怕还要下雨。
③从时间上看，hope所希望的一般指将来或现在的事情，不用于指过去的事情。
e.g. I hope he will come. 我希望他会来。
④从句型上看，hope可用hope to do sth. 句型，而不能用hope sb. to do sth. 句型。
e.g. I hope to watch the football match again. 我希望再看一次那场足球赛。
5. 虚拟语气表示说话者做出的假设不是事实，或是难以实现的情况，甚至表达彻底相反的概念。此外，如需表达主观愿望或某种强烈的感情时，也可用虚拟语气。虚拟语气是由句中的谓语动词的特殊形式表示出来的，情况如下：
①表示与现在事实相反的情况。
从句：1f+主语＋动词一般过去时（be动词用were),
主句：主语＋should/would/might /could+do.
e.g. If there were no air or water,there would be no living things on the earth. 如果没有水和空气，地球上就不会有生物。（事实：地球上既有空气也有水）
If I had any money with me,I could lend you some. 如果我带钱了，我就会借给你些。（事实：没有带钱）
②表示与过去事实相反的情况。
从句：If+主语＋had+done,
主句：主语＋should/would/might/could+have done.
e.g. If I had got there earlier, I should/would have met her. 如果我早到那儿，我就会见到她。（事实：去晚了）
If he had taken my advice, he would not have made such a mistake. 如果他听我的劝告的话，就不会犯这样的错误了。（事实：没有听我的话）
③表示与将来事实相反。
从句：if+主语＋were to do/if+主语＋should+do/if+主语＋动词一般过去式（be动词用were),
主句：主语＋should/would/might/could+do.
e.g. If there were a heavy snow next Sunday,we would go skating. 如果下周日下大雪，我们就去滑冰。（事实：下雪可能性很小，不可能）
If she were to be here next Monday,I would tell her about the matter. 如果她下周一来这儿的话，我就会告诉她这件事的始末。（事实：来的可能性很小，不可能）
6. ①英语中除了it is+adj. +to do sth. 结构，还有少量的it is+adj. +doing sth. 结构。定动名词都可以在句中作主语，这是因为使用的形容词不一样，如hopeless, useless等。
e.g. It is useless worrying about it. 为这件事担心无济于事。
It is good playing chess after supper. 晚饭后弈棋挺好。
It is expensive running this car. 开这种小车是浪费。
②同时要注意某些名词也可用于这样的结构：it is+no use/no good(或fun,a great pleasure, a waste of time, a bore等名词）＋doing sth.
e.g. It is no use crying over spilt milk. 覆水难收。
It is a great fun playing football. 打篮球很有趣。
7. wish作动词使用时，后面可以跟一个宾语从句，也可以跟双宾语或复合宾语结构。
e.g. He wished Rose were there to share in the joy. 他真希望露丝也在那里分享他的喜悦。
I wish it to be clear that the decision is final. 我希望明确一下，这个决定是不可更改的。
Do you wish me to serve dinner now?你想让我现在上菜吗？
8. with作为介词，有近20种意义，而且是英语中的高频词，这里特举几例。
①随着，跟着（······的变化而变化）。
e.g. The risk of developing heart disease increases with the number of cigarettes smoked.
烟抽的越多，换心脏病的风险就越大。
②伴随（声音或手势），带着（表情）
e.g. With a sigh, she leant back and closed her eyes.
她叹了口气，身体向后倚靠，闭上了眼睛。
③有，拥有（某种特征或所有物）
e.g. He was in his early forties, tall and blond with bright eyes.
他40出头儿，高高的个子，金黄色头发，一双天蓝色眼睛。
④和......（放在）一起
e.g. Serve hot, with pasta or rice and French beans.
趁热和意大利面或米饭以及四季豆一起端上桌。
⑤与.......一起（做或参与某事）
e.g. Parents will be able to discuss their child’s progress with their teacher.
家长将可以和老师交流子女的进步情况。
9.英语中使用被动语态的频率远远高于汉语。被动语态主要用于以下场合：
①不知道动作的执行者。
e.g. My windows were broken yesterday. 我的窗户昨天被打烂了。
②动作的执行者是泛指或不言自明。
e.g. Rice is also grown in North China. 华北地区也种水稻。
A new railway station will be built next year. 明年要建一座新的火车站。
③为了强调动作的承受者。
e.g. The bridge was built by Prisoners of War. (强调）桥是战俘们建的。
At last an agreement was arrived at. (重要的是达成协议）终于达成协议。
④出于委婉、礼貌而避免提及对方或自己时。
e.g. Enough has been said on this question. (大家不要再说了）
关于这个问题已经讲得够多了。
You are wished to do it more carefully. (不愿意或不便说出来）
希望你能做得更仔细点。
10.让步状语从句是状语从句中的一种，一般翻译为“尽管·····“或“即使······“是我们日常生活中用的“退一步说”的感觉。引导让步状语从句的连词主要有：though, however, whatever, whoever, whomever, whichever, whenever，wherever, whether, no matter (who, what, where, when, etc) , even if, even though。但要注意although,though不可与but连用，但可以与still和yet连用。
e.g. Though I believe it,yet I must consider. 尽管我相信这一点，但我还得考虑考虑。
Although/Though he was exhausted, he(still)kept on working. 虽然他已经精疲力竭了，但他仍然继续工作。
No matter who you are,you must keep the law. (=Whoever you are,you must keep the law. ) 不管你是谁，你都需要遵纪守法。
When anyone does something for you, no matter how small and no matter whether be is a superior or servant, it is proper to say 'Thank you”。
任何人替你做了一件事，不管事情多么微不足道，也不管他是你的上司还是你的仆人，你都应该说声“谢谢”。
Whatever (=No matter what) you say, I won't believe you. (whatever 引导让步状语从句）无论你说什么，我都不会相信你。
I' ll eat whatever(≠no matter what) you give me. (whatever引导宾语从句）你给我吃什么，我就吃什么。
Whoever comes will be welcome. (whoever引导主语从句）不管谁来都受到欢迎。
But whether it's a friendly rivalry or a fight to the death, the end result is the same. 但不管是友好竞争还是生死决斗，结果总是相同的。
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