Vaillant's Categorization of Defense Mechanisms

Level 1:Pathological[edit]

Themechanisms on this level, when predominating, almost always are severely pathological.These six defenses permit one to effectively rearrange external experiences toeliminate the need to cope with reality. The pathological users of thesemechanisms frequently appear irrational or insane to others. These are the"psychotic" defenses, common in overt psychosis. However, they arenormally found in dreams and throughout childhood as well.

·       Delusionalprojection: Delusions about external reality, usually of a persecutory nature.

·       Conversion:The expression of an intrapsychic conflict as a physical symptom; some examplesinclude blindness, deafness, paralysis, or numbness. This phenomena issometimes called hysteria.[23]

·       Denial:Refusal to accept external reality because it is too threatening; arguingagainst an anxiety-provoking stimulus by stating it doesn't exist; resolutionof emotional conflict and reduction of anxiety by refusing to perceive orconsciously acknowledge the more unpleasant aspects of external reality.

·       Distortion:A gross reshaping of external reality to meet internal needs.

·       Splitting:A primitive defence. Negative and positive impulses are split off and unintegrated,frequently projected onto someone else. The defended individual segregatesexperiences into all-good and all-bad categories, with no room for ambiguityand ambivalence. When "splitting" is combined with"projecting", the negative qualities that you unconsciously perceiveyourself as possessing, you consciously attribute to another.[24]

·       Extremeprojection: The blatant denial of a moral or psychological deficiency, which isperceived as a deficiency in another individual or group.

·       Superioritycomplex: A psychological defence mechanism in which a person's feelings ofsuperiority counter or conceal his or her feelings of inferiority. The inflatedfeelings of being superior, above the ordinary, and special, along witharrogance lead to difficulties at work and in relationships.

·       Inferioritycomplex: A behavior that is displayed through a lack of self-worth, an increaseof doubt and uncertainty, and feeling of not measuring up to society'sstandards. Despotic control is a compensation for tremendous feelings ofinferiority, unworthiness, self-rejection and often feeling unlovable.

Level 2:Immature

Thesemechanisms are often present in adults. These mechanisms lessen distress andanxiety produced by threatening people or by an uncomfortable reality.Excessive use of such defences is seen as socially undesirable, in that theyare immature, difficult to deal with and seriously out of touch with reality.These are the so-called "immature" defences and overuse almost alwaysleads to serious problems in a person's ability to cope effectively. Thesedefences are often seen in major depression and personality disorders.[22] Theyinclude:

·       Actingout: Direct expression of an unconscious wish or impulse in action, withoutconscious awareness of the emotion that drives that expressive behavior.

·       Fantasy:Tendency to retreat into fantasy in order to resolve inner and outer conflicts.

·       Wishfulthinking: Making decisions according to what might be pleasing to imagineinstead of by appealing to evidence, rationality, or reality

·       Idealization:Tending to perceive another individual as having more positive qualities thanhe or she may actually have.[25]

·       Passiveaggression: Aggression towards others expressed indirectly or passively, oftenthrough procrastination.

·       Projection:A primitive form of paranoia. Projection reduces anxiety by allowing theexpression of the undesirable impulses or desires without becoming consciouslyaware of them; attributing one's own unacknowledged unacceptable or unwantedthoughts and emotions to another; includes severe prejudice and jealousy,hypervigilance to external danger, and "injustice collecting", allwith the aim of shifting one's unacceptable thoughts, feelings and impulsesonto someone else, such that those same thoughts, feelings, beliefs andmotivations are perceived as being possessed by the other.

·       Projectiveidentification: The object of projection invokes in that person precisely thethoughts, feelings or behaviors projected.

·       Somatization:The transformation of negative feelings towards others into negative feelingstoward oneself, pain, illness, and anxiety.

Level 3:Neurotic

Thesemechanisms are considered neurotic, but fairly common in adults. Such defenceshave short-term advantages in coping, but can often cause long-term problems inrelationships, work and in enjoying life when used as one's primary style ofcoping with the world.[22] They include:

·       Displacement:defence mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses to a moreacceptable or less threatening target; redirecting emotion to a safer outlet;separation of emotion from its real object and redirection of the intenseemotion toward someone or something that is less offensive or threatening inorder to avoid dealing directly with what is frightening or threatening. Forexample, a mother may yell at her child because she is angry with her husband.

·       Dissociation:Temporary drastic modification of one's personal identity or character to avoidemotional distress; separation or postponement of a feeling that normally wouldaccompany a situation or thought.

·       Hypochondriasis:An excessive preoccupation or worry about having a serious illness.

·       Intellectualization:A form of isolation; concentrating on the intellectual components of asituation so as to distance oneself from the associated anxiety-provokingemotions; separation of emotion from ideas; thinking about wishes in formal,affectively bland terms and not acting on them; avoiding unacceptable emotionsby focusing on the intellectual aspects (isolation, rationalization, ritual,undoing, compensation, and magical thinking).

·       Isolation:Separation of feelings from ideas and events, for example, describing a murderwith graphic details with no emotional response.

·       Rationalization(making excuses): Convincing oneself that no wrong has been done and that allis or was all right through faulty and false reasoning. An indicator of thisdefence mechanism can be seen socially as the formulation of convenientexcuses.

·       Reactionformation: Converting unconscious wishes or impulses that are perceived to bedangerous or unacceptable into their opposites; behaviour that is completelythe opposite of what one really wants or feels; taking the opposite beliefbecause the true belief causes anxiety.

·       Regression:Temporary reversion of the ego to an earlier stage of development rather thanhandling unacceptable impulses in a more adult way, for example, using whiningas a method of communicating despite already having acquired the ability tospeak with appropriate grammar.[26]

·       Repression:The process of attempting to repel desires towards pleasurable instincts,caused by a threat of suffering if the desire is satisfied; the desire is movedto the unconscious in the attempt to prevent it from enteringconsciousness;[27] seemingly unexplainable naivety, memory lapse or lack ofawareness of one's own situation and condition; the emotion is conscious, butthe idea behind it is absent.[citation needed]

·       Undoing:A person tries to 'undo' an unhealthy, destructive or otherwise threateningthought by acting out the reverse of the unacceptable. Involves symbolicallynullifying an unacceptable or guilt provoking thought, idea, or feeling byconfession or atonement.

·       Withdrawal:Withdrawal is a more severe form of defence. It entails removing oneself fromevents, stimuli, and interactions under the threat of being reminded of painfulthoughts and feelings.

·       Upwardand downward social comparisons: A defensive tendency that is used as a meansof self-evaluation. Individuals will look to another individual or comparisongroup who are considered to be worse off in order to dissociate themselves fromperceived similarities and to make themselves feel better about themselves ortheir personal situation.

Level 4:Mature

Theseare commonly found among emotionally healthy adults and are considered mature,even though many have their origins in an immature stage of development. Theyhave been adapted through the years in order to optimise success in humansociety and relationships. The use of these defences enhances pleasure andfeelings of control. These defences help to integrate conflicting emotions andthoughts, whilst still remaining effective. Those who use these mechanisms areusually considered virtuous.[22] Mature defences include:

·       Respect:Willingness to show consideration or appreciation. Respect can be a specificfeeling of regard for the actual qualities of a person or feeling being andalso specific actions and conduct representative of that esteem. Relationshipsand contacts that are built without the presence of respect are seldom longterm or sustainable. The lack of respect is at the very heart of most conflictin families, communities, and nations.

·       Moderation:The process of eliminating or lessening extremes and staying within reasonable limits.It necessitates self-restraint which is imposed by oneself on one's ownfeelings, desires etc.

·       Patience:The level of endurance under difficult circumstances (delay, provocation,criticism, attack etc.) one can take before negativity. Patience is arecognized virtue in many religions.

·       Courage:The mental ability and willingness to confront conflicts, fear, pain, danger,uncertainty, despair, obstacles, vicissitudes or intimidation. Physical courageoften extends lives, while moral courage preserves the ideals of justice andfairness.

·       Humility:A mechanism by which a person, considering their own defects, has a humbleself-opinion. Humility is intelligent self-respect which keeps one fromthinking too highly or too meanly of oneself.

·       Mindfulness:Adopting a particular orientation toward one’s experiences in the presentmoment, an orientation that is characterised by curiosity, openness, andacceptance.

·       Acceptance:A person's assent to the reality of a situation, recognizing a process orcondition (often a negative or uncomfortable situation) without attempting tochange it, protest, or exit. Religions and psychological treatments oftensuggest the path of acceptance when a situation is both disliked andunchangeable, or when change may be possible only at great cost or risk.

·       Gratitude:A feeling of thankfulness or appreciation involving appreciation of a widerange of people and events. Gratitude is likely to bring higher levels ofhappiness, and lower levels of depression and stress. Throughout history,gratitude has been given a central position in religious and philosophicaltheories.

·       Altruism:Constructive service to others that brings pleasure and personal satisfaction.

·       Tolerance:The practice of deliberately allowing or permitting a thing of which onedisapproves.

·       Mercy:Compassionate behavior on the part of those in power.

·       Forgiveness:Cessation of resentment, indignation or anger as a result of a perceivedoffence, disagreement, or mistake, or ceasing to demand retribution orrestitution.

·       Anticipation:Realistic planning for future discomfort.

·       Humor:Overt expression of ideas and feelings (especially those that are unpleasant tofocus on or too terrible to talk about directly) that gives pleasure to others.The thoughts retain a portion of their innate distress, but they are"skirted around" by witticism, for example self-deprecation.

·       Identification:The unconscious modelling of one's self upon another person's character andbehavior.

·       Introjection:Identifying with some idea or object so deeply that it becomes a part of thatperson.

·       Sublimation:Transformation of negative emotions or instincts into positive actions, behaviors,or emotions, for example, playing a heavy contact sport such as football orrugby can transform aggression into a game.[26]

·       Thoughtsuppression: The conscious process of pushing thoughts into the preconscious;the conscious decision to delay paying attention to an emotion or need in orderto cope with the present reality; making it possible to later accessuncomfortable or distressing emotions whilst accepting them.

·       Emotionalself-regulation: The ability to respond to the ongoing demands of experiencewith the range of emotions in a manner that is socially tolerable. Emotionalself-regulation refers to the processes people use to modify the type,intensity, duration, or expression of various emotions.

·       Emotionalself-sufficiency: Not being dependent on the validation (approval ordisapproval) of others.