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一、基本概念       1、科学：指特定范围内反映客观事物的关系与规律的知识体系。    特点：a.客观性（反映客观的外在事物）。          b.规律性          c.系统性（不是零散的、锁碎的，而是一个系统）          d.准确性（客观地反映科学的东西，讲究准确性）          e.可验证性。   （自然科学，社会科学，人文科学。在某些情况下，人文科学与社会科学可等同起来，但严格地说有联系也有区别。人文科学，侧重研究人的个体自身的问题、情感、宗教、信仰、理念等。社会科学侧重研究社会的一些问题。人文科学要研究的问题，社会科学都得研究。）    2、教育科学（社会科学的范畴）    它是一门探索教育发展客观规律的综合性科学，是一个门类各齐全，分支众多的知识体系。是教育科学体系中一门操作性较强的一门应用性学科。    3、科学研究：是要探讨前人所未知的知识，解决前人没有解决或尚未完全解决的问题，因此，它是一种创造性的脑力劳动的过程。科学研究有两大根本特点：（1）创造性；（2）艰巨性。除此外还有以下特点：a.有目的、有计划、有意识、有系统的实践活动；b 所有的科学研究都是在前人认识的基础上进行的；c .所有的科学研究，都是在科学的方法指导下进行的；d.现代的科学研究多强调集体的研究。    4、教学科学研究——是用科学的方法，探索教育规律，创造和生产教育科学理论知识体系的一种脑力劳动。    从这个概念引申出来教育科学研究的对象是：教育问题（论证问题、实践中遇到的问题。）（1）    教育问题的特点：A. 复杂性（如学困生的原因多种多样，一因多果，一果多因，甚至既是结果又是原因的现象多得很）B. 两难性（两难问题）：理论中的两难，实践中的两难；理论与实践的脱节。    a.理论两难——人性问题。（这个问题是哲学、历史、社会、心理学界未解决的问题。人性善还是恶？“知”与“行”孰先孰后？b.实践中的两难。c.理论与实践脱节的两难。C  开放性：a.时间上开放：（对某一问题的认识从历史与现在同时具有前瞻性，对某一问题要经得起时间考验。）b.空间上开放：（不是本部门，本区域的问题，也是其他区域其他部门的事，应打开区域，打开国门……D  整合性与扩散性：[素质教育最大难点：评价问题（原来评价是终结性评价，即结果评价），素质教育是形成性评价，即过程评价。]（2）教育科学研究必须遵循的基本原则：A.客观性原则（价值中立原则）：（不受主观价值观念的支配和影响，必须遵循客观规律。不能改变客观事实。客观地收集材料，对客观材料作实事求是的分析。）B.操作性原则。（研究中使用的名词术语，要有明确的可操作的语义规定。）C.检验性原则。（研究的过程，特别是研究的结果可以被证明正确与否。）D.系统性原则。（研究的对象要有中心概念目的，要把它放在整合的系统里去研究。）E.公共性原则。研究对象、方法、成果，要有明确的文化符号，表示清楚。（3）教育科研的分类。A.根据研究目的：分为基础研究和应用研究；B.根据研究问题的性质：分为教育价值研究和教育事实研究；（应该是什么——是什么）C.根据研究方法的不同：分为定量研究和定性研究；（数学方法——描述性）D.根据研究的大小不同：客观研究和微观研究；E.根据研究问题的时间不同：历史研究，现状研究将来研究。（4）科学研究方法：有广、狭义两方面。广义，就是讲方法论，用马克思主义哲学观点研究问题，方法论是一种指导思想，是用历史唯物主义、辩证唯物主义观点研究问题。狭义上讲的是具体的研究方法：具体的研究方法离不开方法论的指导，但有它特定的研究领域。5、教育科学研究方法：A.教育科学研究方法也必须以方法论为基础；B.运用教育科学研究方法来研究问题时，应正确处理三个关系，树立三个观点：a.实践第一的观点；b.辩证发展的观点；c.系统整体的观点。C.教育科学研究方法构成一个体 系。二、教育科学研究的意义1、是社会主义现代化建设的需要；2、是建立具有中国特色的社会主义教育科学体系的需要；3、是教育决策的需要（行政领导、一般教师）；4、是教育管理的需要；5、是教育改革的需要。6、教师工作需要（“经验型——理论型”转化）三、教育科研的基本方法（一）选题与抽样    1、选题    （选题——是起始步骤，是教育科研的决定因素。）（1）重要性：（2）发现问题思维策略：A.怀疑：对权威的观点用怀疑的眼光看。B.类比与移植。C.逆向思维传统三个中心：“教师、教材、课堂”中心新教育观三个中心：儿童、儿童经验、儿童活动为中心四大支柱：a.学会学习；b.学会生存；c.学会做人；d.学会交往。D.深入思考（深入思考可以发现很多问题。）（2）选题的基本原则A.价值性原则：理论价值：能丰富理论                 完成价值：有现实的指导意义；有拓展的空间。B.新颖性原则：广义：“人无我有”（当然可以）；“人有我新”（——“也谈”“再论”，有可能越新颖越好，但应有一定的基础，前提，不能是没有一点可能的）C.具体性原则：——[不可笼统、抽象，可根据扩散性的特点具体化，不具体就说不深透]。D.兴趣性原则：——（尽量是本人感兴趣，平时有思考并是喜欢思考的。为什么，因为是很艰巨的。）⑤量力性原则：——（有把握，有完成的可能性，做到有始有终，多考虑主客观条件。）a.主观：①知识水平（包括知识结构）；②思维特点：（概括性或深刻性如：与××商酌。）③科研经验（有人多写科普性的，不必太深的）（有人可写学术性强的，有一定份量的）    b.客观因素：①时间（在职人员时间不多，选题不必太广，应选择收集较容易的）。②经费。（3）选题的基本途径A.从教育文献中选题：在查阅大量的文献资料中发现空白处，错误处，不足处，在这地方选取一个课题来研究。（应看大量的资料，靠长期积累，有所思考。）B.在教育实践中选题：在教学中发现问题，选出的课题是大量的，很特殊的叫“教育的对策研究”。对策研究：①问题表现——②危害（教育事业、学生成果）——③原因——④对策对策研究的课题的格式应说清上述几个方面。在教育实践中发现教育的弊端，就应想方设法克服解决，那就应从上述四方面去研究。例：《某市中小学教师流失对策研究》①查清某市中小学教师流失基本情况；②查清某市中小学教师流失的危害；③分析某市中小学教师流失的原因；④提出控制某市中小学教师流失的对策。表现（流失：显性、隐性）。危害：尽力做好，否则是殆误下一代。原因：a.主观：社会上的原因，地位不太高，工作环境，师德不够。b.客观。（4）从中央和地方的教育规划中选题。中央与地方都有具体规划，有一定时代感，容易发表。2、抽样（1）什么是抽样？从研究对象的总体中，选取一部分个体，作为研究对象的样本的方法就叫抽样。（2）抽样的目的。根据研究结果，推断或说明总体。（3）意义A.省：省人力、物力、财力；B.快：C.细：研究的过程与收集的信息都可以详细地进行。D.准。（4）基本原则：随机抽样（或抽样要遵循随机性基本原则）（5）基本要求：A.明确规定总体界限；B.要掌握样本容量的大小；C.要考虑研究者的工作条件；D.选取的样本要具有广泛的代表性和典型性。（6）方法A.单纯随机抽样法。B.等距抽样法；a.次序等距抽样法。b.空间等距抽样法。C.分类抽样法（分层抽样法）（把学生分成男生女生，在男女生中抽若干人数；把学生分为好、中、差三类属分类，分类分层大致一样）D.多级抽样法。E.整体抽样法（整体可大可小）F.有意抽样法。按课题规定，有目的有意识抽取特定的对象作为研究的样本。（二）观察法    1、概述（1）概念：研究者在自然状态下，通过感观或借助一定的科研仪器，有目的有计划有 系统地考察教育现象的研究方法。（①有目的有计划，②选择特定的观察对象；③作严格详细的观察记录；以上三点是科学观察与日常观察的区别）（2）要素与特点：要素：①观察者；②观察对象；③观察手段。特点：①客观性；（获得的资料能较真实反映客观事物）相对真实。②选择性（有选择地观察特点对象）。③能动性。（3）作用：A.观察是课题选择的重要来源；B.观察是获取原始材料最基本的方法。（苏霍姆林斯基）C.观察检验教育科学理论的重要依据之一。（4）适用范围：研究学生之间的人际关系，教师的教学艺术，学生之间，老师之间，学生与老师之间，甚至是老师与家长之间的冲突、合作。（5）不适用范围：研究对象总体比较大，研究时间较长的教育对象不宜，甚至不能用观察法，甚至一些较敏感的问题也不适用观察法。2、观察的种类（1）根据观察是否借助仪器分：直接观察法和间接观察法。A.直接观察法：凭借研究者的感官，去直接感知对象，从而获取感性材料的一种研究方法。（参观、听课）。直接观察法的优点是：i.身临其境，感受真切；ii.容易形成对事物有机整体的认识；缺点：i.由于观察者自身的条件不一样，个人的感受也不一样；ii.由于受人体感官的限制，有些现象无法观察得到。B.问题观察法：借助科学仪器，观察研究对象，从而获得感性材料的方法。优点：i.克服了人的感官的局限性，使获得的材料比较真实准确。ii.做到了观察者的观察活动本身不影响被观察者的活动。缺点：i.缺少身临其境的感觉；获得的材料不够生动。ii.操作比较困难。（2）根据观察时观察者是否参与观察对象的活动，可分为参与性观察和非参与性观察。（社会科学、自然科学不存在参与与非参与之别，观察者参加到被观察对象之中，从而达到观察目的的一种研究方法。）隐蔽参与观察：优点，能收集到观察对象内在本职的东西；缺点：容易成为左右的人物，以观察者的感受代替被观察者的感受。非参与性观察：观察者不介入被观察对象的活动，是作为一个旁观者置身于他所观察的情景之外的观察：i.出现在活动现场，但不参加活动；ii.不出现在活动现场。缺点：缺少亲身的体验，使有价值的内在的东西不容易观察到。（3）根据观察严密程度分：结构式，非结构式A.结构式：有明确的观察计划，有详细的观察体系，是系统的观察，并且是可控制的观察。优点：严密、科学、收集的资料准确；缺点：操作比较复杂。B.非结构性观察：缺乏观察计划和观察提纲，观察的目的是对观察对象一 般性的了解。优点：操作简便易行；缺点：获取的资料带有偶然性，得不出断然的结论。3、观察法设计与实施：（1）确定观察目的，作好观察准备：A.确定观察的内容；B.选择观察的途径与方法；C.观察取样。  a.对象取样；  b.时间取样（在特定时间里观察）  c.阶段取样（学生考试焦虑问题）  d.场面取样（游戏场面）  e.事件取样（孩子争执：时间短，恢复时间快；随着年龄增大攻击性行为多）D.设计观察表格，做好观察记录。E.其他方面的准备工作：  a.仪器；b.人员培训；c.应急事件处理。（2）做好观察记录A.记录时力争准确；B.记录要全面；C.记录要有序；D.整理与收集资料；注意：①研究者到某一校园去观察，要到获准进入观察场所。②尽量做到不破坏观察场面。4、应用观察法应注意事项（1）掌握观察技术，培养观察能力； A.掌握做好观察前准备的技巧； B.在观察中要学会各种观察的方法，尤其应知道用哪种类型的观察。要善于对观察材料进行分析。（2）正确对待观察结果。因为观察不可避免会产生误差，在收集到观察材料进行分析时要估计到观察误差。（3）观察与分析相结合。（三）调查法    1、调查法概述    （1）概念：是指在教育过程中研究者凭借一定的手段或方法对一些教育现象或事实进行考察，通过对收集到的各种事实资料的分析处理，进而得出结论的一种研究方法。（在教学过程中，在真实的情景下进行，最常见的是访谈与问卷）    （2）（与观察法比较）优缺点及突出特点：特点：a.调查法能收集到难以从直接观察中获取的材料。（教育现象的评价，有关教育的社会舆论或教育精神领域的材料，敏感性的问题。b.调查法的应用不受时间和空间的限制。（观察法受时间空间的限制，只可收集到正在发生的事）c.——具有效率较高的特点。（在一定时间段里收集的资料比观察法多得多）。d.调查过程的本身可起到推动有关单位工作的作用。（3）调查法使用范围。A.用在现状研究上。（以历史法研究为主……如果研究对象可用直接方法了解的用观察法，用间接方法了解的用调查法（或称间接观察法。）B.用在比较研究上。比较研究的课题可以用调查法，通过比较得出结论。C.可以用在纵向发展研究上。（对某一问题的追踪研究，可用调查法。）D.用在历史研究上。E.用在未来发展研究上。（4）.调查法的分类。A.目的不同可分为：常模调查、比较调查。B.根据调查内容分：事实调查、征询意见调查。C.根据调查范围分：综合调查、专题调查。D.根据调查对象不同分：全面调查、非全面调查。E.根据调查常用的方式不同分：问卷调查、访谈调查。2、调查研究的基本步骤。 （1）必须遵循三个基本原则：A..目的性原则；B..价值性原则；C.量力性原则。（2）选取调查对象。（3）收集资料。（4）整理资料。3、教育调查报告的基本格式（1）教育调查报告：教育调查报告是记载研究人员调查过程和调查结果的一种文体。要求：A.写出调查的目的与方法，使阅读者一看便知。B.要有明确的结论，并提出可行性建议。（2）结构格式：A.目的与方法；B.结果分析；C.结论与建议。4、问卷调查（1）问卷误差及补救措施：A.当心调查是否合法.B.当心调查结果公布有损切身利益C.富有被调查经验的有意为难。（补救措施：尽量避免重复问卷）D.当心回答会暴露自己见识短或文化低。（①尽量是不署名问卷；②尽量用结构式的问题设计。）E.因为忙碌或者认为调查问题毫无意义。F.从未想过，而且也不愿、不想调查的问题。问题尽量通俗、简单明了。（2）问卷设计。一份完整的问卷设计包括三项内容。A.问题设计  a.直接提问（职业年龄）  b.间接提问  c.假设性提问提问题时注意几个问题：a.问题表述要清楚，不要有模糊不清的概念，表述应简洁易懂。b.尽量不使用技术性或专业性术语。B.答案设计：强调用结构式答案（通常理解是选择题）尽量少使用非结构式的答案设计。a.定类回答。（除非需要，答案是互斥的，又可互相包容。如：工人、农民、知识分子）答案必须穷尽所有的项目。b.定序回答。（对某一活动感兴趣，较感兴趣，一般，较不感兴趣，不感兴趣）(a).排列从弱到强或从强到弱。(b).尽量做到答案对称。（级数对称，“一般”前后各二项。）c.定距回答。（对教师敬业爱岗情况的调查：你一周用于备课的时间是：小于3小时，3-6，6-9，9-12大于12）a.数据的遗漏；b.间距相等。（3）问卷编排：A..标题；B..指导语；（①调查意义；②填写说明；）C..问题与答案；D.结束语。（4）问卷试行a.回收率应在70%以上。（少于70%应补救，再问卷，再回收）4、访谈调查：（1）与问卷比较，优点：A.灵活性强；B.应用访问调查适用于比较复杂的课题；C.可以克服问卷调查中回收率低的缺点。D.访谈调查可以通过多种途径来确定调查对象回答的可信度。（2）缺点：A.费用多，时间长；B.标准化程度低。（收集到的资料不容易分析整理）C.容易产生偏差；D.无法做到不记名，保密程度差。（3）访谈的种类：A.电话访谈（网络访谈）B.儿童访谈注意：a.注意儿童的年龄，知识水平和理解能力。      b.要注意处理好与儿童的关系。      c.要考虑儿童的访谈经验和心理特点。（4）应用调查法注意事项A.做到定量与定性相结合。（数字说明，定性描述）B.正确对待调查结果。    a.调查存在一定误差；b. 定性表述应准确，不可把相关关系说成因果关系。（四）实验法  1、定义：  研究者根据某种假设在人为控制的条件下，观察实验因素与教育效果之间的因果关系，从中探索教育规律的一种研究方法。  2、特点：（1）实验是以假设为先导并围绕假设展开。   A.具有假定性（具有推测的性质）   B.现实性。（2）研究过程受到控制。（没有控制就没有实验，“实验控制”是实验法的关键。（3）实验的根本目的是探明因果关系。（4）具有可重复性。（具备同样的条件，同样的操作手段，其结果一样。） 3、应用的范围 （1）发展性研究（儿童认知发展） （2）改革性研究（教学内容方法） （3）验证性研究 （4）预测性研究 4、局限性  （1）越是客观的问题综合性很强的一些教育问题越不可用实验法进行研究。  （2）运用实验要符合社会伦理道德标准。（“教育性原则”）（3）运用实验法应有利于儿童身心发展。5、类型（1）根据前人是否做达研究来分：分为探索性实验，验证性实验，改造性实验。（2）根据自变量的多少，可分为单因素实验，双因素实验，多因素实验（自变量两个以上）（3）根据对实验的控制程度：可分为前实验，准实验和真实验。A..前实验：缺乏清晰的假设，实验中一般不设对照组（控制组），对实验环境的控制不够严格，干扰实验的因素较多。因此，它的实验结论只具有或然性。B..准实验。（教育实验一般只能是准实验，做不到真是一种接近真实验，但又不十分规范的实验，从它的目的与所要完成的任务来看，它接近真实验，即揭示事物间的因果关系。但从控制程度上看，又不足以称真实验，尽管它力图控制实验干扰因素，但无法做到完全加以控制。C.真实验。是一种对所有可能影响实验效果的因素做了一种充分控制的实验。对实验的无关变量充分估计到，并做到完全加以控制。6、教育实验变量控制  （1）什么是变量  与实验有关的因素或条件如果变成可测量的数量化的或是等级性的东西，都称为变量。    例：《改革初中一年级作文评讲方式与学生作文成绩关系的实验研究》    教师：年龄、性别、组织水平、与学生的关系，敬业……    学生：年龄、性别、兴趣、家庭背景、阅读    其他：讲评方式，作文次数，环境，设施设备所有以上都是变量。（自变量、因变量、无关变量）   A.自变量：在实验中，由实验者操纵其变化的变量（x）。   B.因变量：在实验中随着自变量的变化而变化的变量。（y） C.无关变量：除自变量以外一切可能影响实验效果的因素，叫无关变量。（是实验结果的干扰因素）    a.机体变量；    b.环境变量（非机体因素）。    [根据无关变量表现方式不同可分：显性变量与隐性变量。    （2）、影响实验效果的主要因素。    A.由实验设计和操作带来的误差。    a.选择误差。    b.实验程序编排不当。    c.中途失控。    d.测评误差。    B.实验过程中的负效应。    （3）实验效度与无关变量的控制     实验效度：实验结果的准确性和有效性的程度分为内效度和外效度两方面。    a.内效度反映的是实验对变量间因果关系揭示的准确程度。    b.外效度：是指实验结果的可推广程度。    （4）提高实验效度。    A..在不同条件下进行重复实验。    B..使实验情境与实际教学情境尽可能接近。    C.. 采取合理的抽样方式，避免实验误差。    （5）提高内效度的途径    A..利用仪器设备进行控制；    B..合理安排实验处理程序；    C..消除无关变量；    D.抵消无关变量；    E.统计处理。 (参考资料：《教育科研通论》)2005．4．6"}