五、With引导的独立主格结构分析
with独立主格结构是英语中一种重要的句法现象，在句子结构方面具有相对独立的特点。多年来也一直是命题的热点、重点，因此应该引起我们的高度重视。众所周知，with引导的独立主格结构非常活跃，虽然它在句子中只作状语，但是可以表示伴随、方式、原因、结果等各种复杂的情况。
现将with引导的独立主格结构总结如下。
一、句法结构
1． with ＋名词（代词）＋介词短语
He sat there thinking, with his chin on his hand．他手托下巴，坐在那儿沉思。
The old man stood there, with his back against the wall．那位老人背倚着墙站在那里。
Mary was sitting near the fire, with her back towards the door．玛丽靠近火炉坐着，背对着门。
2． with ＋名词（代词）＋形容词
He stared at his friend with his mouth wide open．他张大嘴巴凝视着他的朋友。
The man raised his head with eyes full of wonder and mystery．这人抬起头来，眼里充满了好奇。
He stood there trembling, with his face red with cold．他站在那儿瑟瑟发抖，脸都冻红了。
3．with ＋名词（代词）＋副词
With production up by 60％, the company has had another excellent year．产量上升了60％, 公司又是一个好年景。
The stupid Emperor walked in the procession with nothing on．这位愚蠢的皇帝一丝不挂地行进在游行队伍中。
The naughty boy stood before his teacher with his head down．这个淘气的男孩低着头站在老师面前。
He put on his socks with the wrong side out．他把袜子穿反了。
4．with ＋名词（代词）＋名词
She used to sit reading in the evening with her pet dog her only companion．
她从前总爱在晚上坐着看书，她的宠物狗便是她唯一的伙伴。
He died with his daughter yet a schoolgirl．他去世的时候，女儿还是个中学生。
5．with ＋名词（代词）＋现在分词
She stood there chatting with her friend, with her child playing beside her．她站在那儿跟朋友闲聊，孩子在旁边玩。
With you helping me whenever I’m in trouble, I feel very obliged to you．无论我什么时候遇到困难你总是帮助我，真是太感激你了。
6．with ＋名词（代词）＋过去分词
“I think we can leave with our heads held high,” Eriksson said． “We came out of the toughest group, beat Argentina, beat Denmark in a convincing way．”“我认为我们可以高昂着头离开，”艾里克松说。“我们来自死亡之组，以一种令人信服的方式击败了阿根廷，击败了丹麦。”
The goalkeeper left Japan with his flaws laid bare．这位守门员离开了日本，而他的缺点却暴露无遗。
7．with ＋名词（代词）＋不定式
With 10 minutes to go, you’d better hurry． 还有十分钟，你最好快一点。
With you to lead us, our group is sure to succeed． 有你领导我们，我们组肯定能成功。
二、句法功能
【作状语】 with独立主格结构主要用作状语，可以表示伴随、方式、原因、时间等。
例8 With Mary to help him, he is sure to succeed. 有玛丽的帮助，他一定能成功。
【作定语】 主要是用作后置定语。
例9 The girl reached a river bank with so many flowers on both banks.这个女孩来到了两岸开满鲜花的河边。
三、句法关系
【主表关系】 主表关系这种关系主要是由with独立主格结构中的名词和其后的形容词、副词以及介词短语构成。
例10 Mother looked at me with tears in her eyes. 妈妈眼含泪水看着我。
【主谓关系】这种关系主要是由with独立主格结构中的名词和其后的现在分词构成。
例11 With night coming on, we started for home. 夜幕降临，我们动身回家。
例12 The boy lay on the grass, with his eyes looking at the sky.小男孩躺在草地上，两眼望着天空。
【动宾关系】这种关系主要是由with独立主格结构中的名词和其后的过去分词及动词不定式构成的，前者表示“被动、完成”，后者表示“未做、待做”。
例13 With so much work to do, we had to sit up through the night.有这么多工作要做，我们不得不彻夜不眠。
四、句法省略
【省略特征】 with独立主格结构中的省略主要是指在“with + n + 介词短语”结构中的省略，其特点是省去with及介词短语中的名词修饰词，也就是：“n + 介词 + n”。
例14 She ran to the hero, flowers in hand.她手里拿着鲜花跑向这位英雄。
六、英语泛指与特指的转换与活用
泛指和特指是每年高考必考的一组概念，在英语中广泛使用。“泛指”是指普遍、不确定的人或事物，而“特指”则是指具体、特定的人或事物。在实践中，这两个概念是可以灵活运用且相互转换的。下面分几个方面谈谈：
一、“泛指”与“特指”的多种表达
说起“泛指”，我们马上想起不定冠词(a/an)，其实不带冠词的不可数名词和复数名词都可以表“泛指”， 有些表“不定”概念的限定词（another, some, a few, most, enough, hundreds of, plenty of等 ）也可以充当这个作用。例如：
I want to buy a book/some books. Books are of great use. Air is all around us.
I will stay there for a few days/another few days.
“特指”经常由定冠词（the）或表“特定”概念的限定词（物主代词，指示代词，名词所有格等）来充当。假如将“中国的第二大河流”说成 “China’s the second longest river” 是不妥当的， 因为China’s 和the 在“特指”的概念上是重复的。“那个门破了的教室”既可以译成 “the classroom whose door is broken”也可以说成 “the classroom the door of which is broken”，因为 “door” 前应该有个表“特指”的限定词。同样，“with one’s help/ take one’s place” 可能在另一场合会变成“with the help of/ take the place of”。
在表达“倍数”时，我们常常看到这样一个公式：“倍数 + the + 名词(size/height/ length) + of ”。如果把它改为“倍数 + 表特指的名词/代词”就可以更好理解的下面的句子了：
① The size of the newly broadened square is four times that of the previous one. (that=the size)
② I offer ten times the money that Antonia has borrowed. =I offer ten times what Antonia has borrowed. (what=the money that 定语从句)
③ You can’t imagine that rats eat 40 to 50 times their weight.（their weight=the weight of rats）
二、“泛指”与“特指”的转化
“泛指”与“特指”在不同的语境中并非一成不变，它们是可以转换的。
（一）“泛指”转化为“特指”
1．① I spent many happy hours with them.
② This picture reminds me of the many happy hours I spent with them.
2．① I bought a few books in the bookstore.
② The few books I bought in the bookstore are written in English .
3． ① I don’t feel like drinking water.
② I don’t feel like drinking the water from this well.
4．① Cotton played an important part in Industrial Revolution.
② The most important thing about cotton in history is the important part that it played in Industrial Revolution.
5．① I have done a little to help you.
② I hope the little that I’ve been able to do has been of some use to you.
以上的②句中的划线部分都是由于有一个定语限定而转化为“特指”。
另外，在一些限定词的后面只能接泛指的名词，如：a lot of, plenty of, dozens of, hundreds of等。然而，有些却可以增加一个 “of”，便只能后接特指的成分：
后接表“泛指”的名词 后接表“特指”的名词/代词
some (students) some of （the students） a good many （people） a good many of （the people）
most most of （us） a dozen a dozen of （these apples） five hundred five hundred of （them）
（二）“特指”转化为“泛指”
1．When the spaceship traveled above, a new-looking earth appeared before us, an earth that we had never seen before. 当宇宙飞船在上空运行时，一个全新的地球出现在我们面前，以往我们都不曾看过。
2．It is a world of wonders, a world where anything can happen.(2004福建卷)
3．It’s really fun to walk alone with a full moon hanging in the sky.
4．Having been overseas for half a century, he returned and found himself in a brand-new China.
本来“the earth/ the world/ the moon/ China”都是特指的，但是，如果增加一些修饰成分之后，指不同时期、不同角度看到的或不同形状的“地球、世界、月亮、中国”的话，它们就转化为泛指了。
5．I knew a John Lennon, but not the famous one. (2005高考山东卷)
John Lennon是一个著名歌手，当然是特指。句中的a John Lennon= another person whose name happened to be John Lennon, 是泛指。
6．① He, who led the USA through these years, was shot on April 14, 1865 at a theatre in Washington, D.C.
② He who doesn’t reach the Great Wall is not a true man. 不到长城非好汉。
第一个He=Abraham Lincoln，是特指，要用非限制性定语从句；第二个He= anyone，是泛指；。
7．①—What new subjects are you going to have in the second grade?(特指)
—I’m going to learn a second foreign language.（表“又一”，泛指。）
② No one can have a higher IQ (=an IQ which is even higher) than the taller of the twin brothers.
③ The most diligent student in our class have a most（=very）interesting book.
一般情况下，在比较级、最高级、序数词中用 “a/an”表“泛指”，用 “the”表“特指”。
七、反意疑问句特殊形式总结
英语中，反意疑问句是由陈述句和附在其后的附加疑问句组成。其中附加疑问句是对陈述句所说的事实或观点提出疑问，起证实作用，一般用于证实说话者所说的事实或观点。现将特殊形式的反意疑问句归纳如下：
一、There be 句型陈述句比较特殊, 其附加疑问句的结构为there be的倒装，而不带句子主语。例如：
There is something wrong with the computer, isn't there? 这台电脑有点毛病，是不是？
There aren't any fish in the river, are there? 这条河里没有鱼, 是吗?
二、当陈述部分的主语是everyone, everybody, someone, nobody, no one, none, anyone, somebody等合成不定代词时, 在非正式文体中，附加疑问句中的主语通常用he或they。例如：
Someone opened the door, didn't he/they? 有人开了门，是不是？
Nobody went to the cinema, did they? 没人去看电影，是吗？
三、当陈述部分的主语是everything, nothing, something, anything等合成词，附加疑问句中的主语用it。例如：
Nothing serious happened, did it? 什么事情也没有发生，对吗？
Everything is ready, isn't it? 一切准备就绪了，不是吗？
四、当陈述部分的谓语动词是am的肯定形式时，附加疑问句的谓语动词用aren't，而不用am not;当陈述部分的谓语动词为am not时，附加疑问句的谓语仍用am。例如：
I am five years younger than you, aren't I? 我比你小五岁，不是吗？
I am not late, am I? 我没有迟到，对吗？
五、当陈述部分带有few, little, hardly, scarcely, rarely, seldom, never, nowhere, nothing, no one, nobody等表示否定或半否定意义的词时，附加疑问句的动词用肯定形式。例如：
The old man can hardly read, can he? 这位老人不识字，对吗？
Little food has been left, has it? 吃的东西几乎没剩下，是吗？
He has few good friends, has he? 他几乎没有要好的朋友，是不是？
六、当陈述句部分带有否定前缀的词时，此陈述句当作肯定句， 其后的附加部分用否定形式。例如：
The students were impolite, weren't they? 那些学生没有礼貌，不是吗？
It's illegal to drive a car without a license, isn't it? 没有驾照开车是违章的，不是吗？
〔注〕含有否定含义的词在陈述部分作动词的宾语时，其反意疑问句用肯定结构，也可以用否定结构。例如：
You got nothing from him, did you? 你从他那儿什么也没得到，是吗？
七、如果陈述句是主从复合句而主句的谓语是动词I(we) + think, believe, suppose, imagine, reckon, fancy等词时，附加部分应与从句中的谓语在时态上保持一致。例如：
I suppose you are not serious, are you? 我想你不是当真吧，是吗?（不可用don't I?）
We think they have finished their homework, haven't they? 我们认为他们已经完成了家庭作业，不是吗？
I believe that you will enjoy the party, won't you? 我相信你会喜欢这次聚会的，不是吗？
八、当陈述部分是祈使句时，附加部分可以不与前面的祈使句的动词保持一致，而是根据不同的用意选用shall, will, can 等。例如：
Don't make noise, will you? 不要吵闹，行吗？
Let's help each other, will you/won't you? 让我们互相帮助，好吗？
Let me do it for you, will you/won't you? 让我来帮你做这件事，行吗？
Let us have a look at your new dictionary, will you/won't you? 让我们看一看你的新词典，好吗？
〔注〕Let's（包括说话者本人）开头的祈使句，附加部分常用shall we?或shan't we? 表示征求意见。 Let us/me/him不包括听话人在内开头的祈使句，附加部分则要用will you?或won't you?
九、含had better的陈述句，附加部分用助动词had; 含would 的陈述句，附加部分动词用would。例如：
You'd better go home now, hadn't you? 你最好现在回家，好不好？
You'd like to see the film, wouldn't you? 你很想看电影，是吗？
〔注〕陈述部分有have to 时，其反意疑问句要用助动词的否定形式。例如：
You have to water the vegetables every day, don't you?你每天都要浇菜，对吧？
十、8.陈述部分的主语是不定代词one时，反意疑问句的主语可以用one，也可用you(美式英语用he)。例如：
One should be ready to help others, shouldn't one? 每个人都应该乐于助人，是吧？
※ 当陈述部分主语是从句、不定式(短语)、动词-ing形式时，反意疑问句的主语应该用it。例如：
What you need is more important, isn't it？你需要的东西更重要，是吧？
十、附加疑问句有时可用Eh? Right? Am I right? Don't you think? Isn't that so?等。例如：
She didn't pass the entrance examination, eh? 她没有通过入学考试，呃？
They forgot to attend the lecture, am I right? 他们忘记去上那次课了，对不对？
十一、用must表推测的反意疑问句的有关用法
1) 对现在情况的推测，问句部分用主动词（do,be)一般现在时的适当形式。若是现在进行时，问句部分用现在进行时的适当形式表示。若是there be结构，问句用isn't/aren't there。如：
a. He must be there,isn't he?
b. He must have a big family,doesn't he?
c. He must be waiting outside,isn't he?
d. There must be some students in the room,aren't there?
2) 对已发生的过去情况的推测，若陈述句谓语部分有“must have done”，而且有表示过去的时间状语，问句部分用didn't；若没有表示过去的时间状语，问句部分用haven't或hasn't。如：
a. They must have gone there last night,didn't they?
b. They must have arrived by now,haven't they?（根据by now来判断）
c. They must have been to the Great Wall,haven't they?
3) 若是被动，应按被动结构来处理。如：
a. The room must have been cleaned yesterday,wasn't it?
b. The room must have been cleaned,hasn't it?
4) 若句中有表示过去完成时的时间状语，问句部分应用hadn't. 如:
They must have learnt 5000 English words by the end of last term,hadn't they?
(本题中must表推测，如果将它去掉，还原为真实句就是They had learnt 5000 English words by the end of last term.因此，反意问句是hadn't）
八、否定句式常见错误及分析
英语和汉语在否定的表达形式上存在着许多差异，如果以中国人的思维方式和习惯用法去套英语，这样在汉译英时难免会出现一些错误。部分常见的错误举例如下：
1、未经允许，任何人不得入内。 误：Anybody can not come in without permission. 正：Nobody can come in without permission. "任何……不"是汉语中常用的否定句式，而在英语中与any构成的合成词或被any修饰的词语作主语时，谓语动词不能用否定式，因此any ... not的表达形式不符合英语的习惯。翻译这类句子时须用"否定形式的主语+肯定形式的谓语"。但当any的合成词或any所修饰的词带有后置定语时，谓语可以用否定式，如： 干那种事的人都是不诚实的。 Anyone who does that isn't honest.
2、听到这个消息后，没有一个人不感到兴奋。 误：Having heard the news, nobody did not feel excited. 正：Having heard the news, everybody felt excited. 汉语中常用"没有+主语+不+谓语"这一双重否定的结构，而英语中否定形式的主语习惯上不能与否定形式的谓语连用。因此nobody... not的结构不符合英语的表达习惯。翻译这类句子时，（1）可把主语和谓语都改成肯定形式；(2)也可用另一结构的双重否定式：there be +否定的主语 + 否定形式的定语从句，如： There was nobody who did not feel excited. 或：There was nobody but felt excited.
3、这两本书都不是英国出版的。 误：Both of the books are not published in England. 正：Neither of the books is published in England. 我不同意所有这些方案。 误：I don't agree to all these projects. 正：I agree to none of these projects. 或：I don't agree to any of these projects. 英语中的概括词all, every, both, 以及与every 构成的合成词，用语否定句式时，只表示部分否定，常译成"并非……都"，因此两个错误译句的含义分别为：并非两本书都是英国出版的，并非所有这些方案我都同意。要表达全部否定意义时，英语须用全否定词语，如none neither, no, nobody, nothing, not…any, not…either等。
4、这台车床不能再用了，那台也一样。 误：This lathe can not be used any longer, and that one can't, too. 正：This lathe can not be used any longer, and that one cna't either. 或：This lathe can not be used any longer, neither (nor) can that one. 否定句中的"也"不能译成too,而须用either，或用neither(nor)的倒装句型。
5、你不必为你的军衔和薪金担心。 误：You won't have to worry about rank and pay. 正：You won't have to worry about rank or pay. 在肯定句中用and来连接两个并列成分，表示"和"，但在否定句中and应改为or, 这时否定词对or的前后部分同时加以否定。
九、英语部分否定归纳
英语中的部分否定（即不完全否定）有如下一些表示方法：
一、all 的否定式：not all…（或：all…not）表示"并非都……"、"不是所有的都……"例如：
Not all men can be masters. (= All men cannot be masters.) 并非人人都能当头头。
Not all bamboo grows tall. 并非所有的竹子都会长得很高。
二、both 的否定式：not…both (或：both… not) "并非两个……都……" 例如：
I don't want both the books. 我不是两本书都要。
Both (the) windows are not open. 两扇窗子并不都开着。
三、every…的否定式："不是每……都……" 例如：
Not every book is educative. (或：Every book is not educative.) 不是每本书都有教育意义的。
Not everyone likes this book. 并非人人都喜欢这本书。
This flower is not seen everywhere. 这花并不是随处可见的。
四、always的否定式："并非总是（并非一直）……" 例如：
He is not always so sad. 他并不是一直都这样悲伤。
五、entirely, altogether, completely 和quite 的否定式："不完全……"，"并非完全……" 例如：
The businessman is never to be entirely trusted. 不可以完全信任商人。
He felt not altogether satisfied. 他并不完全满意。
I don't agree completely. 我并不完全同意。
What he did was not quite proper. 他做的不十分妥当。
六、all the time 的否定式："并非一直……"、"未必老是……" 例如：
A foolish man doesn't make a mistake all the time. 笨人未必老是犯错误。
七、not…and…的否定式，被否定的往往是and后面的那一部分。 例如：
He did not speak clearly and correctly. 他讲得清楚但不正确。
This film is not interesting and instructive. 这部电影有趣但无教育意义。
She cannot sing and dance. 她会唱歌但不会跳舞。
如果将and 换成or，not 对其后面的两部分就全盘否定了。
He did not speak clearly or correctly. 他讲的既不清楚也不正确。
如要对上述的all, both, every, always, 以及entirely, altogether, completely, quite 和 all the time 等词作完全否定，那就分别要用与之相对应的全否定词，如no, none, neither, no one, never, not (never)… at all 等。例如：
All of them can do it.--- None of them can do it.
Both are good.--- Neither is good.
Everybody likes it. ---Nobody likes it.
He is always late. --- He is never late.
We don't trust them entirely. --- We never trust them at all.
He was here all the time. --- He was never here.
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