少问Do you understand?，那问什么？简单，CCQs！ - 英语教学法原著选读特刊
公益翻译，请随手转发。感谢！
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以下英文原文节选自David Nunan 2013年在Routledge出版的论文集《Learner-Centered English Language Education: The Selected Works of David Nunan》，为其前三分之一。下周与下下周将刊出论文的后两部分，敬请期待。
原文（作者：David Nunan）
译文（翻译、审校：武太白）
Heading:
Hidden Voices: Insiders' Perspectives on Classroom Interaction
隐藏的声音：课堂教学互动的内部人视角
导言
As I explore my teaching by describing— recording, transcribing, and coding communications— rather than by seeking prescriptions and judgments from others, patterns are broken both consciously and unconsciously. I have sought alternatives in teaching and found them. After I found that I have alternatives, I felt freer and securer about deciding on activities for the students. Throughout the internship, I have learned how to see teaching more clearly and differently. In other words, I realized how much more I can do… (Gebhard and Ueda-Motonaga 1992: 190)
随着我使用描述法——对沟通进行录制、转写和编码——来探寻自己的教学，而不是用从他人处寻求“处方”和判断的方法加以探寻，定式在有意无意间遭到打破。我寻求教学中新的可能，我也找到了。我发现自己有其他选项之后，在为学生设计活动做决策时我感到更加自由，也更有把握。在整个实习期间，我学会了怎样更加清晰地以不同的视角看待教学。换句话说，我意识到我能做的还有那么多……（葛巴德与乌额达-莫托那加 1992：190）
In an eloquently-argued case for the evolution of a nexus between classroom research and teacher education, Wright (1992) describes a situation familiar to almost anyone who has ever walked through a school while a lesson is in progress:
Imagine we walk down the corridor of a school and hear much noise coming from a classroom. We might at first assume that it is the result of the teacher having lost control of the class (or some other plausible explanation). On arrival and entrance to the classroom, we find the students engaged in an activity which involves animated discussion, in groups, with the teacher participating as a monitor in the activity. (p. 194)
在一项雄辩的论证中，莱特（1992）提出在课堂教学研究和教师教育之间能够进化出某种关联，他描述了一种场景，几乎任何曾经在有教学活动进行中的校园中穿行过的人都会觉得熟悉：
想象我们沿着一所学校的走廊往前走，听到一间教室里传来不小的声音。最开始我们可能以为这声音是教师对课堂失去了控制的结果（或者其他什么可信的解释）。到了教室，进了门，我们发现学生都在进行一项需要热烈讨论的活动，分组进行，而教师则作为监控者参与到活动当中去了。（p. 194）
In this anecdote, Wright provides a warning against drawing conclusions about behavior without knowing the context in which the behavior occurs. He wryly concludes that "we can only know what the noise is about by referring directly to the context in which the noise occurs" (ibid.).
在这则轶事中，莱特提出了一种警告，要求不要在不了解行为出现之语境的情况下就做出结论。他不无挖苦地总结说，“我们只有直接了解了噪音出现之语境，才能弄明白这声音是怎么来的”（同上）。
It seems to me that a great deal of research in our field is conducted in contexts where classroom noise either is unheard or is considered irrelevant and therefore removed from the equation before the numbers are added up and their significance determined. This lack of contact with the reality of the classroom has driven a wedge between researchers and practitioners which threatens to become a gulf unless steps are taken to bridge it. In this chapter, I would like to make a modest contribution toward closing the gap between theory and practice, and between researchers and teachers. I shall try to do this by giving teachers an opportunity to have their voices heard, and their perspectives and interpretations presented.
在我看来，我们这个领域的大量研究就是在课堂噪音没有得到倾听、或被认为与研究无关的情况下进行的，课堂声音在“方程”的数字加到一起、其意义得到确定之前就已经被消除了。这种与课堂教学的现实缺乏联系的情况已经在研究者和从业者之间造成了隔膜，这种隔膜不无发展成为分歧的可能，除非采取措施加以克服。本章，我将略作阐述，力求缩小理论与实践之间、研究人员与教师之间的隔阂。为做到这一点，我拟尝试赋予教师机会，使他们的声音获得倾听，使他们的视角和解读得以呈现。
I should like to acknowledge and thank the teachers who took part in this study, and also David Cervi, who assisted in transcribing some of the interactions on which it is based.
我要感谢参加了此项研究的教师们，并向大卫·切尔维表示谢意，他协助转写了此研究赖以达成的一部分互动内容。
研究
In this section, I shall describe the subjects and context of the investigation and the research question. I shall then set out some of the data and provide my own descriptive and interpretive account of those data. Because ethnographic investigations of this type are data rich, my account must necessarily be selective.
本节我拟对调查的受试者和语境以及研究问题做一描述。其后我拟列出一些数据，并提供我对这些数据的描述与解读。由于此种类型的调查在人种学方面数据非常丰富，我的讲述必然只能是一孔窥豹。
受试情况
The participants in this study were nine ESL teachers who were teaching in Australia and were also undertaking some form of professional qualification. They varied greatly in their professional backgrounds and length of experience. Three had been practicing for less than one year. The others ranged in experience from one to fifteen years.
本研究的参与者是九位ESL（英语作为第二语言）教师，他们在澳大利亚从事教学工作，同时在参加某种形式的教师资格认证。在职业背景和经验年限方面他们差异巨大。三位教师从教时间不足一年。其他人的教学经验一到十五年不等。
研究问题
The question which provided my point of departure was relatively easy to pose: In what ways are the processes of classroom instruction illuminated by the voices of the teachers? Finding answers in the data described herein was less straightforward. Moreover, as I analyzed these data, other questions and issues emerged, and I had to struggle to regain the original focus while admitting emerging insights into the analysis.
提供了出发点的问题相对比较容易提出：课堂教学互动的过程在哪些方面得到了教师声音的阐明？在此处所描述的数据中找到答案，显得不那么直接。更有，随着我分析这些数据，其他问题和议题出现了，而我不得不挣扎着重新回到最初的焦点，与此同时把新出现的领悟整合到分析中来。
研究步骤
The data for the investigation were gathered through a four-stage procedure.
调查的数据是通过一种四阶段的步骤收集起来的。
1. Before the lesson. Before the lesson began, I obtained background information on the teacher and took a copy of the teacher's lesson plan. (The teachers were asked to provide a detailed lesson plan, as well as biographical data in advance of the lesson.)
1. 课前。在教学开始之前，我拿到教师的背景信息，以及一份教案。（老师们被要求在课前提供一份详细教案，以及个人数据。）
2. During teaching. The lesson was observed and recorded, and notes were taken to assist in the transcription process. Particular note was taken of those points at which the teacher deviated from the lesson plan.
2. 课中。对课堂教学进行观察与录制，做笔记，以协助转写过程。对那些教师偏离教案之处，会特别记录。
3. After the lesson. Immediately after the class, I talked about the lesson with the teachers, asking them to focus on those points at which they had deviated from their plan.
3. 课后。课堂教学一结束，我就立刻跟老师们聊聊这节课，让他们聚焦到他们偏离了教案的地方。
4. Follow-up. The lesson was transcribed and a copy was sent to the teacher to annotate. The transcripts, annotations, and post-lesson protocols were then analyzed by using a range of qualitative data analysis procedures. (For a description of such procedures, see Nunan 1992.)
4. 后续。教学实录被转写，并抄送教师一份，供他们点评。然后对转写文字、点评文字和教学后调查书进行分析，使用的是多种定性数据分析步骤。（对此类步骤的描述，参见努南1992。）
In attempting to gain insights into the question I had posed, I revisited the transcripts, my observational notes, and the teachers' post-lesson protocols and annotations many times. As I aligned the different sources of data related to critical classroom incidents, adding successive layers of interpretation, the incidents themselves were transformed, as we shall see.
为了回答我所提出的问题，我反复多次查看转写文字，观课笔记，以及教师们的课后调查书和点评文字。随着我把与至关重要的课堂事件相关的各种不同来源的数据各自归位，并连续添加多层阐释，这些事件自身得到了转化，后面我们会看到。
This section discusses some of the themes which emerged from the data. Given the quantity of data and constraints of space, I have been selective in the choice of issues and amount of data provided. However, I hope that enough supporting data are provided to sustain my case.
本部分探讨数据分析中出现的一些主题。由于数据量和空间的限制是给定的，我对议题的选定和数据的提供是有选择的。然而，我希望所提供的支持性数据足以支持我的观点。
Getting the action going
推动授课前行
In the ebb and flow of any given lesson, there are several critical moments. The first few minutes seem particularly important in creating the appropriate tone of the lesson, and the atmosphere which is established at the beginning of the class often persists for the duration of the lesson.
在任何给定课程的波澜起伏中，都有好几个至关重要的时刻。最初的几分钟看起来特别重要，能够创造出合适的课程基调，而在课堂最初所建立的气氛经常会一直延续到当堂课的结束。
The value added by the teacher's voice is illustrated by the following incident. I had noted the beginning of one lesson in the following field-noted record:
教师的声音所添加的价值可由下述事件加以表明。我在下列现场听课记录中对一节课的开局这样记录：
The students wander into the class in twos and threes. As they begin to settle down, the teacher makes several of them change places. Students seem lethargic after lunch. The teacher then introduces and revises vocabulary. This goes on for over ten minutes, and the students begin to seem rather restive. I wonder why she's going on so long.
学生们三三两两进入班级。随着他们坐下来，老师让他们中的好几个人改换了座位。学生看起来吃完午饭后懒洋洋的。教师然后介绍并复习了词汇。这一活动持续了十多分钟，学生开始看上去有点想睡觉。我不知道她为什么要上这么久。
In this observation there is an implicit criticism of the pacing of the lesson. In the post-lesson debriefing, when asked for a commentary on this part of the lesson, the teacher reported:
在这段观察文字中，对课堂节奏有一种未曾言明的批评。在课后的简单总结过程中，当被问及对课堂的这个部分如何评价时，教师报告说：
…in the initial eliciting, I found it quite difficult to elicit the clothes—you know, " What am I wearing? What's he/ she wearing?" I got a bit [annoyed] at that point because we did it last week, you see. It just makes you realize that we did it as a warm-up activity a week ago, and it had just gone totally out of their heads. So that was another thing I'd not anticipated. I thought they'd just tell me—and they didn't.
在最初的引出过程中，我发现要想引发学生说出衣服相当困难——你知道的，“我穿些什么？他/她穿些什么？”在这里我有点【生气】，因为你知道，我们上周刚上过这个。这就使你意识到我们一周前刚把这作为一种warm-up活动做过，而这完全从他们右耳朵里出去了。所以这是另外一件我没有料到的事情。我觉得他们会告诉我——他们却没有。
The teacher's voice here reveals several things. First, it dramatizes the fact that lessons are not discrete entities that come neatly prepackaged. As a course evolves over days, weeks, and months, a culture emerges through the interaction of personalities and events. Without an understanding of that culture, many of the events which occur in a particular lesson will be meaningless to the outside observer. One of the unfortunate realities of much classroom research is that it is carried out on individual lessons (and often on relatively short segments of individual lessons). This denies the researcher's access to data which would render many seemingly odd or irrelevant interactions meaningful. Second, it shows that particular classroom events only take on meaning within the context of the course. In order to understand classroom events and the interpretations of those events by teachers and learners, we need to step outside the artificial temporal framework of "the lesson". (I shall return to this point later.) The third observation which we can make here relates to the teacher's theory of learning, and the assumption that the work which had been previously undertaken would be sufficient to ensure that learning had taken place. Throughout the data, there is evidence that everything "that is said and done" in the lesson and all comments on the lesson, are underpinned "by" beliefs (often implicit) about the nature of language, learning, and teaching.
教师的声音此处揭示了好几个情况。首先，教师的声音戏剧性地突出了这样一个事实，即教学并不是离散状态的实体，能够干净整洁地预先包装好交给学生。随着一天天、一周周、一个月一个月进展，在人物和事件的互动中会出现一种文化。如果未能理解这种文化，许多在具体课堂教学中出现的事件对外部观察者来说就变得毫无意义。对许多课堂教学研究来说，不幸的事实是这些研究都是针对单独一两节课展开的（并且经常是单独一两节课相对简短的片段）。这就使研究者无法接触到会使得看上去怪异的、或不相干的互动变得有意义的数据。其次，教师的声音表明，某些课堂教学活动只有在整个课程的总体语境下才变得有意义。要理解课堂活动以及师生对于这些活动的解释，我们需要从人为设置的时间框架“课堂教学”中走出来。（后面我会再说起这一点的。）这里我们能够得出的第三点结论与教师的学习理论有关系，与“此前已经下过的功夫应该足够确保学生学到了”这个假定有关。几乎所有数据都可以作为证据，表明课堂教学中“所言所行”，以及对课堂教学的所有评论，都有着背后关于语言、学习和教学性质的信念（经常是不成文的）作为支撑。
Particularly notable was the fact that very few lessons began with the teacher's explicitly laying out the objectives for the students. The exception was the following.
尤其值得注意的是这样一个事实：极少有课堂是以教师向学生列明本节课目标的方式开始的。下面是一个例外情况：
T: Okay now, the approach we're gonna take here—there will be some traditional grammar in this, but what I'm going to try to give you, is some analytical skills of how to analyze your own writing, and skills that you can take away from here and use them, okay? It's not just grammar we're looking at. It's…we're looking at how do I make myself understood to somebody else? Right? And how can I work on this on my own all of the time? Now some of you gave me some examples of writing in the beginning and I've looked at that to see exactly what kind of writing is it that you want to do and that you have to do. Okay. And we've…We've called this course scientific writing and the type of writing you do is what we call "report writing".
In fact, this was the only lesson in the entire data base in which the teacher laid out the pedagogic terrain to be covered with more than an off-hand comment. How can we account for this apparent failure to address a basic pedagogical imperative? That is, how can we account for the fact that only one teacher bothered to explain to the students what it was they were supposed to be learning? I believe it demonstrates that the notion of a "lesson" is not particularly salient for the teachers who took part in the study. Boundaries which appear tangible in a timetable dissolve against the emerging culture of the classroom. There is evidence in the data, both in the lesson transcripts and the reports of the teachers themselves, that more salient than the "lesson" is the analytical unit of "task", which is smaller than "lesson", and "course". This is explicit in the following opening gambit and commentary.
事实上，这是整个数据库中唯一的一节这样的课：教师列出了准备涉及的教学领域，而不仅仅是临时说一句。我们怎样才能解释这种明显未能应对基本教学要求的情况呢？也即，我们怎样解释这样一个事实，只有一位教师操了这个心，去向学生解释他们将要学习的内容？我相信这表明了“授课”这一概念对于参与此项研究的教师来说并没有什么重要意义。在时间表里看起来清晰可见的边界，到了课堂上逐渐形成的文化中，就遭到了消解。在授课转写文字和教师本人的报告数据中都有证据表明，相比“授课”，比“授课”、“课程”更小的、更加分析性的“任务”要更加有意义。在下面的开场白和点评中，这一点就明白无误了：
T: Remember last week when we were talking about our businesses that we were role playing and we went to the ideas center and we had Lee to discuss our proposals for expanding into developing countries, and what I felt was that it would be a good idea to read about something which was a successful expansion into a developing country.
On reviewing the lesson transcript, the teacher made the unprompted comment that she "wanted to make a special effort to make a connection with previous lessons".
在回顾授课转写文字的时候，教师自发点评说，她是“想要特别努力一下，与之前的课形成一种联系”。
In several cases, the teachers launch directly into the "meat" of the lesson. For example, in one lesson the teacher entered the room, turned her back on the class, and wrote on the board: " A woman's place is in the home." She then turned to the class and said:
在好几个案例中，教师直接进入了授课的“实质”部分。例如，在一节课中教师进入课堂，转身在黑板上写道：“A woman’s place is in the home.”然后转身面向班级，说道：
T: Any comments about that sentence: " A woman's place is in the home"?
S: Half correct.
T: Half correct? Why'd you say that, Henry?
S: Um, woman's place not just at home. She should be go out and go work.
T: Yeah? What about the man?
S: Man is the same, I think.
The teacher justified this rather abrupt beginning to the lesson by stating, " I didn't feel the need to use any other warmer than the initial stimulus for the functional target language, as I know these students well."
教师对于这个相当突然的授课开头，是这样解释的：“因为我和这些学生很熟悉，我觉得没必要使用其他任何导入，就是这个最初的刺激引出功能性的目标语言就可以了。“
In this section, I have presented some of the data relating to lesson openings. These data illustrate a number of emerging issues which reappear later in the study. First, "lesson" is not a particularly salient label for those invoked in the teaching/ learning process. Second, in order to understand classroom behavior, we need to study the behavior in context in which it occurs—that is, in classrooms constituted for the purposes of teaching and learning, not in those which are established to provide cannon fodder for researchers. Third, in order to understand what is going on, we need to set the interpretations of the researcher against insights provided by the other actors in the educational drama.
本节，我呈现了与授课开端有关的一些数据。这些数据表明了多个浮现出来的议题，这些议题在研究的中后期再次出现。首先，对于那些在教学、学习过程一线的人来说，“授课“不是一个特别清晰的标签。第二，为了理解课堂行为，我们需要把这些行为放到其发生的语境中去进行研究——也即，放到为着教学与学习的目的而设置的课堂教学中去，而不是放到为研究者提供炮灰的教室里去。第三，为了理解都在发生些什么，我们需要把研究者的解读和教育这场戏剧中的其他“演员”所提供的观点相对照。
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Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F):
1.The author thinks that the teacher's voice is extremely important in classroom research.
2. More important to the teachers and students in the actual classroom is the notion of "lesson" rather than "task".
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